Halachaהלכה

Dual Authority in Jewish Governance

Jewish law establishes two complementary systems of authority: courts administering Torah law and kings empowered to act for the common good beyond strict halakha. These sources explore how divine law guides both the judiciary and monarchy, and how political necessity integrates with religious obligation in establishing a just society.

אֵין מַעֲמִידִין מֶלֶךְ בַּתְּחִלָּה אֶלָּא עַל פִּי בֵּית דִּין שֶׁל שִׁבְעִים זְקֵנִים וְעַל פִּי נָבִיא

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Source 1 · Tanach
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Tanach

Deuteronomy 17:18-20:1

The Torah commands the king to write a copy of the law and keep it with him, underscoring the king’s responsibility to be guided by divine law.

וְהָיָ֣ה כְשִׁבְתּ֔וֹ עַ֖ל כִּסֵּ֣א מַמְלַכְתּ֑וֹ וְכָ֨תַב ל֜וֹ אֶת־מִשְׁנֵ֨ה הַתּוֹרָ֤ה הַזֹּאת֙ עַל־סֵ֔פֶר מִלִּפְנֵ֖י הַכֹּהֲנִ֥ים הַלְוִיִּֽם׃ וְהָיְתָ֣ה עִמּ֔וֹ וְקָ֥רָא ב֖וֹ כׇּל־יְמֵ֣י חַיָּ֑יו לְמַ֣עַן יִלְמַ֗ד לְיִרְאָה֙ אֶת־יְהֹוָ֣ה אֱלֹהָ֔יו לִ֠שְׁמֹ֠ר אֶֽת־כׇּל־דִּבְרֵ֞י הַתּוֹרָ֥ה הַזֹּ֛את וְאֶת־הַחֻקִּ֥ים הָאֵ֖לֶּה לַעֲשֹׂתָֽם׃ לְבִלְתִּ֤י רוּם־לְבָבוֹ֙ מֵֽאֶחָ֔יו וּלְבִלְתִּ֛י ס֥וּר מִן־הַמִּצְוָ֖ה יָמִ֣ין וּשְׂמֹ֑אול לְמַ֩עַן֩ יַאֲרִ֨יךְ יָמִ֧ים עַל־מַמְלַכְתּ֛וֹ ה֥וּא וּבָנָ֖יו בְּקֶ֥רֶב יִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃ {ס}

When he is seated on his royal throne, he shall have a copy of this Teaching written for him on a scroll by the levitical priests. Let it remain with him and let him read in it all his life, so that he may learn to revere the ETERNAL his God, to observe faithfully every word of this Teaching as well as these laws. Thus he will not act haughtily toward his fellows or deviate from the Instruction to the right or to the left, to the end that he and his descendants may reign long in the midst of Israel.

Source 2 · Tanach
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Tanach

I Samuel 8:11-18:1

When Israel demands a king, Samuel warns them about the potential for abuse of power by monarchs, juxtaposing divine law with human governance.

וַיֹּ֕אמֶר זֶ֗ה יִֽהְיֶה֙ מִשְׁפַּ֣ט הַמֶּ֔לֶךְ אֲשֶׁ֥ר יִמְלֹ֖ךְ עֲלֵיכֶ֑ם אֶת־בְּנֵיכֶ֣ם יִקָּ֗ח וְשָׂ֥ם לוֹ֙ בְּמֶרְכַּבְתּ֣וֹ וּבְפָרָשָׁ֔יו וְרָצ֖וּ לִפְנֵ֥י מֶרְכַּבְתּֽוֹ׃ וּזְעַקְתֶּם֙ בַּיּ֣וֹם הַה֔וּא מִלִּפְנֵ֣י מַלְכְּכֶ֔ם אֲשֶׁ֥ר בְּחַרְתֶּ֖ם לָכֶ֑ם וְלֹא־יַעֲנֶ֧ה יְהֹוָ֛ה אֶתְכֶ֖ם בַּיּ֥וֹם הַהֽוּא׃

He said, “This will be the practice of the king who will rule over you: He will take your sons and appoint them as his charioteers and riders, and they will serve as outrunners for his chariots. The day will come when you cry out because of the king whom you yourselves have chosen; and GOD will not answer you on that day.”

Source 3 · Tanach
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Deuteronomy — Appointment of Judges

Deuteronomy 16:18-20:1

'Justice, justice shall you pursue' — the double language signals both the strict legal order of the courts and the pursuit of justice beyond the letter of the law, laying the biblical foundation for dual accountability in Jewish governance.

שֹׁפְטִ֣ים וְשֹֽׁטְרִ֗ים תִּֽתֶּן־לְךָ֙ בְּכׇל־שְׁעָרֶ֔יךָ אֲשֶׁ֨ר יְהֹוָ֧ה אֱלֹהֶ֛יךָ נֹתֵ֥ן לְךָ֖ לִשְׁבָטֶ֑יךָ וְשָׁפְט֥וּ אֶת־הָעָ֖ם מִשְׁפַּט־צֶֽדֶק׃ לֹא־תַטֶּ֣ה מִשְׁפָּ֔ט לֹ֥א תַכִּ֖יר פָּנִ֑ים וְלֹא־תִקַּ֣ח שֹׁ֔חַד כִּ֣י הַשֹּׁ֗חַד יְעַוֵּר֙ עֵינֵ֣י חֲכָמִ֔ים וִֽיסַלֵּ֖ף דִּבְרֵ֥י צַדִּיקִֽם׃ צֶ֥דֶק צֶ֖דֶק תִּרְדֹּ֑ף לְמַ֤עַן תִּֽחְיֶה֙ וְיָרַשְׁתָּ֣ אֶת־הָאָ֔רֶץ אֲשֶׁר־יְהֹוָ֥ה אֱלֹהֶ֖יךָ נֹתֵ֥ן לָֽךְ׃ {ס}

You shall appoint magistrates and officials for your tribes, in all the settlements that the ETERNAL your God is giving you, and they shall govern the people with due justice. You shall not judge unfairly: you shall show no partiality; you shall not take bribes, for bribes blind the eyes of the discerning and upset the plea of the just. Justice, justice shall you pursue, that you may thrive and occupy the land that the ETERNAL your God is giving you.

Source 4 · Chazal
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Talmud

Sanhedrin 20b:4

The Talmud discusses the necessity of appointing a king and differentiates between his powers and those of the Sanhedrin, reflecting dual governance.

מַתְנִי׳ וּמוֹצִיא לְמִלְחֶמֶת הָרְשׁוּת עַל פִּי בֵּית דִּין שֶׁל שִׁבְעִים וְאֶחָד, וּפוֹרֵץ לַעֲשׂוֹת לוֹ דֶּרֶךְ וְאֵין מְמַחֶה בְּיָדוֹ. דֶּרֶךְ הַמֶּלֶךְ אֵין לוֹ שִׁיעוּר, וְכׇל הָעָם בּוֹזְזִין וְנוֹתְנִין לוֹ, וְהוּא נוֹטֵל חֵלֶק בָּרֹאשׁ. אָמַר רַב יְהוּדָה אָמַר שְׁמוּאֵל: כׇּל הָאָמוּר בְּפָרָשַׁת מֶלֶךְ – מֶלֶךְ מוּתָּר בּוֹ. רַב אָמַר: לֹא נֶאֶמְרָה פָּרָשָׁה זוֹ אֶלָּא לְאַיֵּים עֲלֵיהֶם, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״שׂוֹם תָּשִׂים עָלֶיךָ מֶלֶךְ״ – שֶׁתְּהֵא אֵימָתוֹ עָלֶיךָ. כְּתַנָּאֵי, רַבִּי יוֹסֵי אוֹמֵר: כׇּל הָאָמוּר בְּפָרָשַׁת מֶלֶךְ – מֶלֶךְ מוּתָּר בּוֹ. רַבִּי יְהוּדָה אוֹמֵר: לֹא נֶאֶמְרָה פָּרָשָׁה זוֹ אֶלָּא כְּדֵי לְאַיֵּים עֲלֵיהֶם, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״שׂוֹם תָּשִׂים עָלֶיךָ מֶלֶךְ״ – שֶׁתְּהֵא אֵימָתוֹ עָלֶיךָ.

MISHNA: And the king brings out people for conscription in an optional war, i.e., a war that is not mandated by the Torah and is not a war of defense, on the basis of a court of seventy-one, and breaches fences of anyone in his way to create a pathway for himself for his various needs, and no one can protest his power. The pathway of the king has no measure, neither lengthwise nor widthwise, and one cannot protest that this pathway is wider than necessary. And all the people take spoils in war and give them to him, and he takes the first portion of the spoils. With regard to the king’s rights, the Sages engaged in a dispute: Rav Yehuda says that Shmuel says: Concerning all the actions that are stated in the biblical passage about the king (see I Samuel 8:11–17), it is permitted for a king to perform them. Rav says: This biblical passage was stated only in order to threaten the Jewish people, so that they would accept the king’s sovereignty with reverence, as it is stated: “You shall set a king over you” (Deuteronomy 17:15), meaning, it is necessary that his fear should be upon you. But the king is not actually permitted to perform the actions stated there. The Gemara comments that this dispute is parallel to a dispute between tanna’im, as it is taught in a baraita: Rabbi Yosei says: Concerning all the actions that are stated in the biblical passage about the king, it is permitted for a king to perform them. Rabbi Yehuda says: This biblical passage was stated only in order to threaten the Jewish people, as it is stated: “You shall set a king over you” (Deuteronomy 17:15), meaning, it is necessary that his fear should be upon you.

Source 5 · Chazal
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Mishnah Sanhedrin — Laws of the King

Mishnah Sanhedrin 2:2-5:1

The Mishnah delineates the special status of the king, noting that he may not be tried in a regular court and that he wages wars at his own discretion — a formal recognition that royal authority operates under a different legal logic than the Sanhedrin.

הַמֶּלֶךְ לֹא דָן וְלֹא דָנִין אוֹתוֹ, לֹא מֵעִיד וְלֹא מְעִידִין אוֹתוֹ, לֹא חוֹלֵץ וְלֹא חוֹלְצִין לְאִשְׁתּוֹ. לֹא מְיַבֵּם וְלֹא מְיַבְּמִין לְאִשְׁתּוֹ. רַבִּי יְהוּדָה אוֹמֵר, אִם רָצָה לַחֲלֹץ אוֹ לְיַבֵּם, זָכוּר לָטוֹב. אָמְרוּ לוֹ, אֵין שׁוֹמְעִין לוֹ. וְאֵין נוֹשְׂאִין אַלְמָנָתוֹ. רַבִּי יְהוּדָה אוֹמֵר, נוֹשֵׂא הַמֶּלֶךְ אַלְמָנָתוֹ שֶׁל מֶלֶךְ, שֶׁכֵּן מָצִינוּ בְדָוִד שֶׁנָּשָׂא אַלְמָנָתוֹ שֶׁל שָׁאוּל, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (שמואל ב יב) וָאֶתְּנָה לְךָ אֶת בֵּית אֲדֹנֶיךָ וְאֶת נְשֵׁי אֲדֹנֶיךָ בְּחֵיקֶךָ: וּמוֹצִיא לְמִלְחֶמֶת הָרְשׁוּת עַל פִּי בֵית דִּין שֶׁל שִׁבְעִים וְאֶחָד. וּפוֹרֵץ לַעֲשׂוֹת לוֹ דֶרֶךְ, וְאֵין מְמַחִין בְּיָדוֹ. דֶּרֶךְ הַמֶּלֶךְ אֵין לוֹ שִׁעוּר. וְכָל הָעָם בּוֹזְזִין וְנוֹתְנִין לְפָנָיו, וְהוּא נוֹטֵל חֵלֶק בָּרֹאשׁ. לֹא יַרְבֶּה לּוֹ נָשִׁים (דברים יז), אֶלָּא שְׁמֹנֶה עֶשְׂרֵה. רַבִּי יְהוּדָה אוֹמֵר, מַרְבֶּה הוּא לוֹ, וּבִלְבַד שֶׁלֹּא יְהוּ מְסִירוֹת אֶת לִבּוֹ. רַבִּי שִׁמְעוֹן אוֹמֵר, אֲפִלּוּ אַחַת וּמְסִירָה אֶת לִבּוֹ, הֲרֵי זֶה לֹא יִשָּׂאֶנָּה. אִם כֵּן לָמָּה נֶאֱמַר (דברים יז) וְלֹא יַרְבֶּה לּוֹ נָשִׁים, אֲפִלּוּ כַאֲבִיגָיִל. לֹא יַרְבֶּה לּוֹ סוּסִים (שם), אֶלָּא כְדֵי מֶרְכַּבְתּוֹ. וְכֶסֶף וְזָהָב לֹא יַרְבֶּה לּוֹ מְאֹד (שם), אֶלָּא כְדֵי לִתֵּן אַפְסַנְיָא. וְכוֹתֵב לוֹ סֵפֶר תּוֹרָה לִשְׁמוֹ. יוֹצֵא לַמִּלְחָמָה, מוֹצִיאָהּ עִמּוֹ. נִכְנָס, מַכְנִיסָהּ עִמּוֹ. יוֹשֵׁב בַּדִּין, הִיא עִמּוֹ. מֵסֵב, הִיא כְנֶגְדּוֹ, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (שם) וְהָיְתָה עִמּוֹ וְקָרָא בוֹ כָּל יְמֵי חַיָּיו:

The mishna continues, enumerating the halakhot pertaining to the king in similar matters: The king does not judge others as a member of a court and others do not judge him, he does not testify and others do not testify concerning him, he does not perform ḥalitza with his brother’s widow and his brother does not perform ḥalitza with his wife, and he does not consummate levirate marriage with his brother’s widow and his brother does not consummate levirate marriage with his wife, as all these actions are not fitting to the honor of his office. Rabbi Yehuda says: These are not restrictions, but his prerogative: If he desired to perform ḥalitza or to consummate levirate marriage, he is remembered for good, as this is to the benefit of his brother’s widow. The Sages said to him: They do not listen to him if he desires to do so, as this affects not only his own honor but that of the kingdom. And no one may marry a king’s widow, due to his honor. Rabbi Yehuda says: Another king may marry the widow of a king, as we found that King David married the widow of King Saul, as it is stated: “And I have given you the house of your master and the wives of your master in your bosom” (II Samuel 12:8). And the king brings out people for conscription in an optional war, i.e., a war that is not mandated by the Torah and is not a war of defense, on the basis of a court of seventy-one, and breaches fences of anyone in his way to create a pathway for himself for his various needs, and no one can protest his power. The pathway of the king has no measure, neither lengthwise nor widthwise, and one cannot protest that this pathway is wider than necessary. And all the people take spoils in war and give them to him, and he takes the first portion of the spoils. mishna The king “shall not add many wives for himself” (Deuteronomy 17:17), but only eighteen. Rabbi Yehuda says: He may add many wives for himself, provided that they are not like those who turn his heart away from reverence for God. Rabbi Shimon says: Even if he wants to marry only one wife, if she turns his heart away, he should not marry her. If so, why is it stated: “He shall not add many wives for himself”? This teaches that even if his wives are like Abigail, who was righteous and prevented David from sin (see I Samuel, chapter 25), it is prohibited for him to have many wives. The king “shall not accumulate many horses for himself” (Deuteronomy 17:16), but only enough for his chariot in war and in peace. “Neither shall he greatly accumulate silver and gold for himself” (Deuteronomy 17:17), but only enough to provide his soldiers’ sustenance [aspanya]. And the king writes himself a Torah scroll for his sake, as stipulated in Deuteronomy 17:18. When he goes out to war, he brings it out with him. When he comes in from war, he brings it in with him. When he sits in judgment, it is with him. When he reclines to eat, it is opposite him, as it is stated: “And it shall be with him and he shall read it all the days of his life” (Deuteronomy 17:19).

Source 6 · Chazal
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Shemot Rabbah 30:12

Shemot Rabbah 30:12

מַגִּיד דְּבָרָיו לְיַעֲקֹב חֻקָּיו וּמִשְׁפָּטָיו לְיִשְׂרָאֵל לֹא עָשָׂה כֵן לְכָל גּוֹי, וּלְמִי, לִבְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל.

With the children of Israel.

Source 7 · Chazal
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Devarim Rabbah 5:3

Devarim Rabbah 5:3

אָמַר לוֹ הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא הַצְּדָקָה וְהַדִּינִין שֶׁאַתָּה עוֹשֶׂה חֲבִיבִין עָלַי מִבֵּית הַמִּקְדָּשׁ, מִנַּיִן, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (שמואל ב ח, טו): וַיְהִי דָּוִד עֹשֶׂה מִשְׁפָּט וּצְדָקָה. מַהוּ מִשְׁפָּט וּצְדָקָה לְכָל עַמּוֹ, רַבִּי יְהוּדָה וְרַב נַחְמָן חַד אָמַר הָיָה דָן אֶת הַדִּין מְזַכֶּה אֶת הַזַּכַּאי וּמְחַיֵּב אֶת הַחַיָּב, אִם לֹא הָיָה לַחַיָּב לִתֵּן, הָיָה דָּוִד נוֹתֵן מִשֶּׁלּוֹ. הֱוֵי מִשְׁפָּט וּצְדָקָה. אָמַר לוֹ רַב נַחְמָן אִם כֵּן נִמְצֵאתָ מֵבִיא אֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל לִידֵי רַמָּיּוּת, וּמַהוּ מִשְׁפָּט וּצְדָקָה, הָיָה דָן אֶת הַדִּין מְזַכֶּה אֶת הַזַּכַּאי וּמְחַיֵּב אֶת הַחַיָּב, הֱוֵי מִשְׁפָּט וּצְדָקָה, שֶׁהָיָה מוֹצִיא אֶת הַגָּזֵל מִיָּדוֹ, אָמַר הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא לְיִשְׂרָאֵל, בָּנַי, הוֹאִיל וְכָךְ הַדִּינִין חֲבִיבִים לְפָנַי, הֱווּ זְהִירִין בָּהֶם.

Rabbi Yehuda and Rav Naḥman, one said: He would adjudicate a judgment, acquit the innocent party and condemn the guilty party, and if the guilty party did not have the means to pay [what the court had ordered], David would pay from his own money. That is “justice and righteousness.” Rav Naḥman said to him: If so, you would be encouraging Israel to engage in deception. What, then, is meant by “justice and righteousness”? He would adjudicate a judgment, acquit the innocent party and condemn the guilty party – that itself is “justice and righteousness,” as [in doing so] he removes the stolen money from his [the guilty one’s] possession. The Holy One blessed be He said to Israel: ‘My children, since justice is so beloved before Me, be careful with it.’

Source 8 · Chazal
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Shemot Rabbah 30:19

Shemot Rabbah 30:19

אָמַר רַבִּי אֶלְעָזָר כָּל הַתּוֹרָה תְּלוּיָה בַּמִּשְׁפָּט, לְכָךְ נָתַן הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא דִּינִין אַחַר עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדִּבְּרוֹת, לְפִי שֶׁהַבְּרִיּוֹת מַעֲבִירִין עַל הַדִּין וְהוּא נִפְרַע מֵהֶם וּמְלַמֵּד אֶת בָּאֵי עוֹלָם, שֶׁלֹא הָפַךְ אֶת סְדוֹם עַד שֶׁעִבְּרָה אֶת הַדִּין, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (יחזקאל טז, מט): יָתוֹם לֹא יִשְׁפֹּטוּ וְרִיב אַלְמָנָה לֹא יָבוֹא אֲלֵיהֶם, וְלָמָּה נָתַן הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא כֶּתֶר לִיהוּדָה, וַהֲלוֹא לֹא לְבַדּוֹ הוּא גִבּוֹר מִכָּל אֶחָיו, וַהֲלוֹא שִׁמְעוֹן וְלֵוִי גִבּוֹרִים וְהָאֲחֵרִים, אֶלָּא שֶׁדָּן דִּין אֱמֶת לְתָמָר, לָכֵן נַעֲשָׂה דַּיָּן הָעוֹלָם.

Because people pervert justice, He exacts retribution from them and teaches the entire world that He overturned Sodom only after it perverted justice, as it is stated: “[Behold, this was the iniquity of your sister Sodom…] pride, surfeit of bread and tranquil calm, [but she did not support the hand of the poor and indigent]” (Ezekiel 16:49). Rather, it is because he adjudicated a true judgment for Tamar; that is why he became a judge of the world.

Source 9 · Chazal
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Shemot Rabbah 30:15

Shemot Rabbah 30:15

לִשְׁלֹמֹה אֱלֹהִים מִשְׁפָּטֶיךָ לְמֶלֶךְ תֵּן וגו' יָדִין עַמְךָ בְצֶדֶק, רַבִּי אוֹמֵר כְּשֵׁם שֶׁהִזְהִיר הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא עַל הַדִּבְּרוֹת כָּךְ הִזְהִיר עַל הַדִּין, לָמָּה, שֶׁבּוֹ הָעוֹלָם תָּלוּי, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (משלי כט, ד): מֶלֶךְ בְּמִשְׁפָּט יַעֲמִיד אָרֶץ, וּבוֹ צִיּוֹן נִבְנֵית, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (ישעיה א, כז): צִיּוֹן בְּמִשְׁפָּט תִּפָּדֶה, וּבוֹ צַדִּיקִים מִתְגַּדְּלִין, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (תהלים קו, ג): אַשְׁרֵי שֹׁמְרֵי מִשְׁפָּט.

Endow the king with Your justice, God…May he judge Your people with righteousness” (Psalms 72:1–2). Rabbi [Yehuda HaNasi] says: Just as the Holy One blessed be He cautioned regarding the commandments, so He cautioned regarding justice, upon which the world is contingent, as it is stated: “A king will uphold the land with justice” (Proverbs 29:4). And by its means, Zion will be rebuilt, as it is stated: “Zion will be redeemed with justice” (Isaiah 1:27). And by its means the righteous are uplifted, as it is stated: “Happy are those who heed the law” (Psalms 106:3).

Source 10 · Chazal
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Talmud Bavli, Sanhedrin — King Cannot Be Judged

Sanhedrin 19a:15

The Talmud rules that a king neither judges nor is judged, establishing a constitutional separation between the royal and judicial functions; the king operates in a sphere where normal court procedure does not apply to him, underlining the structural independence of the two systems.

מֶלֶךְ לֹא דָּן כּוּ׳. אָמַר רַב יוֹסֵף: לֹא שָׁנוּ אֶלָּא מַלְכֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל, אֲבָל מַלְכֵי בֵּית דָּוִד דָּן וְדָנִין אוֹתָן, דִּכְתִיב: ״בֵּית דָּוִד כֹּה אָמַר ה׳ דִּינוּ לַבֹּקֶר מִשְׁפָּט״. וְאִי לָא דָּיְינִינַן לֵיהּ, אִינְהוּ הֵיכִי דָּיְינִי? וְהָכְתִיב: ״הִתְקוֹשְׁשׁוּ וָקוֹשּׁוּ״, וְאָמַר רֵישׁ לָקִישׁ: קְשֹׁט עַצְמְךָ וְאַחַר כָּךְ קְשֹׁט אֲחֵרִים. אֶלָּא מַלְכֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל מַאי טַעְמָא לָא? מִשּׁוּם מַעֲשֶׂה שֶׁהָיָה, דְּעַבְדֵּיהּ דְּיַנַּאי מַלְכָּא קְטַל נַפְשָׁא. אֲמַר לְהוּ שִׁמְעוֹן בֶּן שָׁטַח לַחֲכָמִים: תְּנוּ עֵינֵיכֶם בּוֹ וּנְדוּנֶנּוּ. שְׁלַחוּ לֵיהּ: עַבְדָּךְ קְטַל נַפְשָׁא. שַׁדְּרֵיהּ לְהוּ. שְׁלַחוּ לֵיהּ: תָּא אַנְתְּ נָמֵי לְהָכָא, ״וְהוּעַד בִּבְעָלָיו״ אָמְרָה תּוֹרָה – יָבֹא בַּעַל הַשּׁוֹר וְיַעֲמוֹד עַל שׁוֹרוֹ. אֲתָא וִיתֵיב. אֲמַר לֵיהּ שִׁמְעוֹן בֶּן שָׁטַח: יַנַּאי הַמֶּלֶךְ, עֲמוֹד עַל רַגְלֶיךָ וְיָעִידוּ בָּךְ. וְלֹא לְפָנֵינוּ אַתָּה עוֹמֵד, אֶלָּא לִפְנֵי מִי שֶׁאָמַר וְהָיָה הָעוֹלָם אַתָּה עוֹמֵד, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״וְעָמְדוּ שְׁנֵי הָאֲנָשִׁים אֲשֶׁר לָהֶם הָרִיב וְגוֹ״. אָמַר לוֹ: לֹא כְּשֶׁתֹּאמַר אַתָּה, אֶלָּא כְּמָה שֶׁיֹּאמְרוּ חֲבֵרֶיךָ.

§ The mishna teaches: A king does not judge and is not judged. Rav Yosef says: They taught this halakha only with regard to the kings of Israel, who were violent and disobedient of Torah laws, but with regard to the kings of the house of David, the king judges and is judged, as it is written: “O house of David, so says the Lord: Execute justice in the morning” (Jeremiah 21:12). If they do not judge him, how can he judge? But isn’t it written: “Gather yourselves together, yea, gather together [hitkosheshu vakoshu]” (Zephaniah 2:1), and Reish Lakish says: This verse teaches a moral principle: Adorn [kashet] yourself first, and then adorn others, i.e., one who is not subject to judgment may not judge others. Since it is understood from the verse in Jeremiah that kings from the Davidic dynasty can judge others, it is implicit that they can also be judged. The Gemara asks: But what is the reason that others do not judge the kings of Israel? It is because of an incident that happened, as the slave of Yannai the king killed a person. Shimon ben Shataḥ said to the Sages: Put your eyes on him and let us judge him. They sent word to Yannai: Your slave killed a person. Yannai sent the slave to them. They sent word to Yannai: You also come here, as the verse states with regard to an ox that gored a person to death: “He should be testified against with his owner” (Exodus 21:29). The Torah stated: The owner of the ox should come and stand over his ox. The Gemara continues to narrate the incident: Yannai came and sat down. Shimon ben Shataḥ said to him: Yannai the king, stand on your feet and witnesses will testify against you. And it is not before us that you are standing, to give us honor, but it is before the One Who spoke and the world came into being that you are standing, as it is stated: “Then both the people, between whom the controversy is, shall stand before the Lord, before the priests and the judges that shall be in those days” (Deuteronomy 19:17). Yannai the king said to him: I will not stand when you alone say this to me, but according to what your colleagues say, and if the whole court tells me, I will stand.

Source 11 · Chazal
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Talmud Bavli, Sanhedrin — King's Prerogative Beyond Torah Law

Sanhedrin 46a:11

The Talmud explicitly states that a king may execute a person who is technically innocent under strict Torah law 'to establish order in the world' (letakken olam), providing the Talmudic basis for the king's extra-judicial authority as a societal necessity distinct from Torah-court jurisdiction.

תַּנְיָא, רַבִּי אֱלִיעֶזֶר בֶּן יַעֲקֹב אוֹמֵר: שָׁמַעְתִּי שֶׁבֵּית דִּין מַכִּין וְעוֹנְשִׁין שֶׁלֹּא מִן הַתּוֹרָה, וְלֹא לַעֲבוֹר עַל דִּבְרֵי תוֹרָה, אֶלָּא כְּדֵי לַעֲשׂוֹת סְיָיג לַתּוֹרָה. וּמַעֲשֶׂה בְּאֶחָד שֶׁרָכַב עַל סוּס בְּשַׁבָּת בִּימֵי יְוָנִים, וֶהֱבִיאוּהוּ לְבֵית דִּין וּסְקָלוּהוּ, לֹא מִפְּנֵי שֶׁרָאוּי לְכָךְ, אֶלָּא שֶׁהַשָּׁעָה צְרִיכָה לְכָךְ. שׁוּב מַעֲשֶׂה בְּאָדָם אֶחָד שֶׁהֵטִיחַ אֶת אִשְׁתּוֹ תַּחַת הַתְּאֵנָה, וֶהֱבִיאוּהוּ לְבֵית דִּין וְהִלְקוּהוּ, לֹא מִפְּנֵי שֶׁרָאוּי לְכָךְ, אֶלָּא שֶׁהַשָּׁעָה צְרִיכָה לְכָךְ.

It is taught in a baraita: Rabbi Eliezer ben Ya’akov says: I heard that the court may administer lashes and capital punishment, even when not required by Torah law. And they may not administer these punishments with the intention of violating the statement of the Torah, i.e., to disregard the punishment stated in the Torah and administer another punishment; rather, they may administer these punishments to erect a fence around the Torah, so that people will fear sinning. And an incident occurred involving one who rode a horse on Shabbat during the days of the Greeks, and they brought him to court and stoned him, not because he deserved that punishment, as riding a horse on Shabbat is forbidden only by rabbinic decree, but because the hour required it, as people had become lax in their observance of Shabbat and therefore it became necessary to impose the severe punishment for a relatively minor offense. Another incident occurred involving a man who engaged in intercourse with his wife in public under a fig tree, and they brought him to court and flogged him, not because that punishment was fitting for him, as such conduct is not forbidden by the Torah, but because the hour required it. People had become remiss in matters of modesty; therefore, stringent measures had to be taken to rectify the situation.

Source 12 · Rishonim
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Mishneh Torah

Mishneh Torah, Kings and Wars 1:1-10:3

Rambam outlines the laws of appointing a king, explaining the balance between royal authority and adherence to Torah law.

אֵין מַעֲמִידִין מֶלֶךְ בַּתְּחִלָּה אֶלָּא עַל פִּי בֵּית דִּין שֶׁל שִׁבְעִים זְקֵנִים וְעַל פִּי נָבִיא. כִּיהוֹשֻׁעַ שֶׁמִּנָּהוּ משֶׁה רַבֵּנוּ וּבֵית דִּינוֹ. וּכְשָׁאוּל וְדָוִד שֶׁמִּנָּם שְׁמוּאֵל הָרָמָתִי וּבֵית דִּינוֹ: נָבִיא שֶׁהֶעֱמִיד מֶלֶךְ מִשְּׁאָר שִׁבְטֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל. וְהָיָה אוֹתוֹ הַמֶּלֶךְ הוֹלֵךְ בְּדֶרֶךְ הַתּוֹרָה וְהַמִּצְוָה וְנִלְחָם מִלְחֲמוֹת ה'. הֲרֵי זֶה מֶלֶךְ וְכָל מִצְוֹת הַמַּלְכוּת נוֹהֲגוֹת בּוֹ. אַף עַל פִּי שֶׁעִקַּר הַמַּלְכוּת לְדָוִד. וְיִהְיֶה מִבָּנָיו מֶלֶךְ. שֶׁהֲרֵי אֲחִיָּה הַשִּׁילוֹנִי הֶעֱמִיד יָרָבְעָם וְאָמַר לוֹ (מלכים א יא לח) "וְהָיָה אִם שָׁמוֹעַ תִּשְׁמַע אֶת כָּל אֲשֶׁר אֲצַוֶּךָ וּבָנִיתִי לְךָ בַיִת נֶאֱמָן כַּאֲשֶׁר בָּנִיתִי לְדָוִד" וְגוֹ'. וְאָמַר לוֹ אֲחִיָּה (מלכים א יא לו) "וְלִבְנוֹ אֶתֵּן שֵׁבֶט אֶחָד לְמַעַן הֱיוֹת נִיר לְדָוִיד עַבְדִּי כָּל הַיָּמִים לְפָנַי בִּירוּשָׁלַםִ":

As an initial and preferred option, a king may be appointed only by a court of 70 elders, together with a prophet, as Joshua was appointed by Moses and his court, and as Saul and David, were appointed by Samuel of Ramah and his court. If a prophet appoints a king from any other tribe of Israel and that king follows the path of Torah and mitzvot and fights the wars of God, he is considered as a king, and all the commandments associated with the monarchy apply to him. Although the kingship was primarily given to David and one of his descendents will be serving as king, there is halachic legitimacy to the rule of other kings. Behold, Achiyah of Shilo appointed Jeroboam and told him (I Kings 11:38 : 'And it shall be that if you obey all that I command you... I will build you a faithful house as I built for David.' Similarly, Achiyah told him (ibid.: 36): 'To his (David's) son, I will grant one tribe, so that David, My servant, will always have sovereignty before Me in Jerusalem.'

Source 13 · Rishonim
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Kuzari

Kuzari 3:11

Yehuda HaLevi addresses the role of a king working alongside religious leaders to balance divine and practical justice.

Source 14 · Rishonim
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Guide for the Perplexed

Guide for the Perplexed, Part 1 3:41

Maimonides discusses the role of the king in maintaining order and justice, and how this complements the religious legal system.

Source 15 · Rishonim
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Rambam, Mishneh Torah — Kings and Wars

Mishneh Torah, Kings and Wars 3:10

Rambam rules that the king may put to death anyone who rebels against him or undermines his authority, even without the ordinary evidentiary requirements of the Torah courts, because the king's governance serves the needs of the hour and the stability of society — a different legal mandate from that of the Sanhedrin.

אֲפִלּוּ בְּעֵד אֶחָד. אוֹ שׂוֹנֵא שֶׁהָרַג בִּשְׁגָגָה. יֵשׁ לַמֶּלֶךְ רְשׁוּת לְהָרְגוֹ וּלְתַקֵּן הָעוֹלָם כְּפִי מַה שֶּׁהַשָּׁעָה צְרִיכָה. וְהוֹרֵג רַבִּים בְּיוֹם אֶחָד וְתוֹלֶה וּמַנִּיחָן תְּלוּיִים יָמִים רַבִּים לְהָטִיל אֵימָה וּלְשַׁבֵּר יַד רִשְׁעֵי הָעוֹלָם:

A murderer against whom the evidence is not totally conclusive, or who was not warned before he slew his victim, or even one who was observed by only one witness, and similarly, an enemy who inadvertently killed one of his foes - the king is granted license to execute them and to improve society according to the needs of the time. He may execute many on one day, hang them, and leave them hanging for many days in order to cast fear into the hearts and destroy the power of the wicked of the earth.

Source 16 · Rishonim
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Rambam, Mishneh Torah — Laws of Rebels

Mishneh Torah, Rebels 3:8-10

Rambam presents royal authority and rabbinic/court authority as two distinct but divinely ordained channels: the king's word is binding in matters of governance and security, while the Sanhedrin rules on matters of Torah law — together they constitute a complete constitutional order.

חָזַר זֶה הֶחָכָם לְעִירוֹ וְשָׁנָה וְלִמֵּד כְּדֶרֶךְ שֶׁהוּא לָמוּד הֲרֵי זֶה פָּטוּר.

If not, they all go to the Supreme Sanhedrin in the Chamber of Hewn Stone from which the Torah emanates to the entire Jewish people, as Deuteronomy 17:10 states: "From that place which God has chosen." The Supreme Sanhedrin tell them: "This is the law" and they all depart.

Source 17 · Rishonim
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Ran, Derashot HaRan — Dual System of Justice

Derashot HaRan 11

The Ran delivers his famous philosophical analysis that the Torah courts exist to apply Divine truth (emet), while the king exists to apply social utility (tikkun ha'olam); because the standards of divine truth can leave dangerous criminals unpunished due to procedural requirements, the king fills the gap with pragmatic justice, and both are essential for a holy society.

והשני שאין ראוי להענישו כפי משפט צודק אמיתי אבל יחוייב להענישו כפי תקון סדר מדיני וכפי צורך השעה, וה' ית' ייחד כל אחד מהענינים האלו לכת מיוחדת, וצוה שיתמנו השופטים לשפוט המשפט הצודק האמיתית, והוא אמרו ושפטו את העם וגו', כלומר בא לבאר השופטים האלה לאיזה דבר יתמנו ובמה כחם גדול, ואמר שתכלית מנויים הוא כדי לשפוט את העם במשפט צדק אמיתי בעצמו ואין יכלתם עובר ביותר מזה. ומפני שהסדור המדיני לא ישלם בזה לבדו השלים האל תיקונו במצות המלך. אבל אם לא יענש העובר כי אם על זה הדרך יפסד הסדור המדיני לגמרי שיתרבו שופכי דמים ולא יגורו מן העונש, ולכן צוה הש"י לצורך ישובו של עולם במינוי המלך כמו שכתוב בפרשה זו וכי תבא אל הארץ וגו' שום תשים עליך מלך וגו' שהיא מצוה שנצטוינו בה למנות עלינו מלך כמו שבא בקבלת רז"ל (סנהדרין כ) והמלך יכול לדון שלא בהתראה כפי מה שיראה שהוא צריך לקבוץ המדיני, נמצא שמנוי המלך שוה בישראל וביתר אומות שצריכים סדור מדיני ומנוי השופטים מיוחד וצריך יותר בישראל, וכמו שהזכיר עוד ואמר ושפטו את העם משפט צדק כלו' שמנוי השופטים ויכלתם הוא שישפטו העם במשפטים צודקים אמתיים בעצמם:

And every people requires some form of government, the sage going so far as to say: "Even thieves recognize the necessity of justice within their society." And Israel needs this just as the other nations do. But they also need judges for an additional reason — to enforce the laws of the Torah and to punish those liable to stripes or to judicial death penalties, whether or not their transgression is detrimental to society. And, certainly, these two considerations entail two functions, respectively: one, punishing a man in accordance with true justice; the other (though he not be liable to punishment in terms of true justice), punishing him for the benefit of society and the exigencies of the hour. The Blessed One assigned each of these functions to distinct functionaries. He commanded that judges be appointed to administer true, righteous judgment. This is the intent of "and let them judge the people a righteous judgment." That is, the verse indicates the function and jurisdiction of these judges, saying that the purpose of their appointment is to judge the people with a judgment that is true and righteous in itself, and that their jurisdiction does not extend beyond this function.

Source 18 · Rishonim
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Rambam, Mishneh Torah — Sanhedrin's Emergency Powers

Mishneh Torah, The Sanhedrin and the Penalties within Their Jurisdiction 24:4-10:1

Rambam discusses the court's own authority to administer extrajudicial punishment as a 'hora'at sha'ah' (emergency ruling), showing that even within the judicial system there is a recognized tension between strict Torah law and the demands of societal order.

יֵשׁ לְבֵית דִּין לְהַלְקוֹת מִי שֶׁאֵינוֹ מְחֻיַּב מַלְקוֹת וְלַהֲרֹג מִי שֶׁאֵינוֹ מְחֻיַּב מִיתָה וְלֹא לַעֲבֹר עַל דִּבְרֵי תּוֹרָה אֶלָּא לַעֲשׂוֹת סְיָג לַתּוֹרָה. וְכֵיוָן שֶׁרוֹאִים בֵּית דִּין שֶׁפָּרְצוּ הָעָם בַּדָּבָר יֵשׁ לָהֶן לִגְדֹּר וּלְחַזֵּק הַדָּבָר כְּפִי מַה שֶּׁיֵּרָאֶה לָהֶם הַכּל הוֹרָאַת שָׁעָה לֹא שֶׁיִּקְבַּע הֲלָכָה לְדוֹרוֹת. מַעֲשֶׂה וְהִלְקוּ אָדָם שֶׁבָּעַל אִשְׁתּוֹ תַּחַת אִילָן. וּמַעֲשֶׂה בְּאֶחָד שֶׁרָכַב עַל סוּס בְּשַׁבָּת בִּימֵי יְוָנִים וֶהֱבִיאוּהוּ לְבֵית דִּין וּסְקָלוּהוּ. וּמַעֲשֶׂה וְתָלָה שִׁמְעוֹן בֶּן שֶׁטַח שְׁמוֹנִים נָשִׁים בְּיוֹם אֶחָד בְּאַשְׁקְלוֹן וְלֹא הָיוּ שָׁם כָּל דַּרְכֵי הַדְּרִישָׁה וַחֲקִירָה וְהַהַתְרָאָה וְלֹא בְּעֵדוּת בְּרוּרָה אֶלָּא הוֹרָאַת שָׁעָה כְּפִי מַה שֶּׁרָאָה: וְכֵן יֵשׁ לַדַּיָּן תָּמִיד לְהַפְקִיר מָמוֹן שֶׁיֵּשׁ לוֹ בְּעָלִים וּמְאַבֵּד וְנוֹתֵן כְּפִי מַה שֶּׁיִּרְאֶה לִגְדֹּר פְּרָצוֹת הַדָּת וּלְחַזֵּק הַבֶּדֶק אוֹ לִקְנֹס אַלָּם זֶה וַהֲרֵי הוּא אוֹמֵר בְּעֶזְרָא (עזרא י ח) "וְכל אֲשֶׁר לֹא יָבוֹא לִשְׁלֹשֶׁת הַיָּמִים כַּעֲצַת הַשָּׂרִים וְהַזְּקֵנִים יָחֳרַם כָּל רְכוּשׁוֹ" מִכָּאן שֶׁהֶפְקֵר בֵּית דִּין הֶפְקֵר:

A court has the authority to administer lashes to a person who is not required to receive lashes and to execute a person who is not liable to be executed. This license was not granted to overstep the words of the Torah, but rather to create a fence around the words of the Torah. When the court sees that the people have broken the accepted norms with regard to a matter, they may establish safeguards to strengthen the matter according to what appears necessary to them. All the above applies with regard to establishing directives for the immediate time, and not with regard to the establishment of halachah for all time. An incident occurred where they had a man lashed for engaging in relations with his wife under a tree. And an incident occurred concerning a person who rode on a horse on the Sabbath in the era of the Greeks and they brought him to the court and had him stoned to death. And an incident occurred and Shimon ben Shetach hung 80 women on one day in Ashkelon. All of the required processes of questioning, cross-examination, and warnings were not followed, nor was the testimony unequivocal. Instead, their execution was a directive for that immediate time according to what he perceived as necessary. Similarly, at all times, a court has the prerogative to declare money belonging to others as ownerless. It may destroy those funds or give them to whomever they see fit to close any breaches in the faith and to strengthen its observance or to penalize a stubborn and difficult person. The Book of Ezra 10:8 states: "Whoever fails to come in three days according to the advice of the officers and the elders will have all of his property confiscated." From this we learn that when a court declares property ownerless, their declaration is effective.

Source 19 · Rishonim
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Mishneh Torah, Rebels 1:5

Mishneh Torah, Rebels 1:5

בֵּין בִּזְמַן אֶחָד בֵּין בָּזֶה אַחַר זֶה. אֶחָד מְטַהֵר וְאֶחָד מְטַמֵּא אֶחָד אוֹסֵר וְאֶחָד מַתִּיר. אִם אֵינְךָ יוֹדֵעַ לְהֵיכָן הַדִּין נוֹטֶה. בְּשֶׁל תּוֹרָה הַלֵּךְ אַחַר הַמַּחְמִיר בְּשֶׁל סוֹפְרִים הַלֵּךְ אַחַר הַמֵּקֵל:

The following rules apply when there are two sages or two courts that have differing opinions in an age when there was no Supreme Sanhedrin or during the time when the Supreme Sanhedrin was still undecided concerning the matter - whether in one age or in two different ages - one rules that an article is pure and one rules that it is impure, one forbids an article's use and one permits it. If one does not know in which direction the law tends, should the matter involve a question of Scriptural Law, follow the more severe opinion. If it involve a question of Rabbinic Law, follow the more lenient opinion.

Source 20 · Rishonim
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Ramban on Deuteronomy 16:18

Ramban on Deuteronomy 16:18

צִוָּה בַּתּוֹרָה עַד הָאֱלֹהִים יָבֹא דְּבַר שְׁנֵיהֶם (שמות כב ח), וְנָתַן בִּפְלִילִים (שם כא כב), אִם כֵּן מִצְוָה שֶׁיִּהְיוּ לְיִשְׂרָאֵל פְּלִילִים. וּבֵאֵר בְּכָאן שֶׁיָּשִׂימוּ הַשּׁוֹפְטִים בְּכָל עָרֵיהֶם כַּאֲשֶׁר יִתֵּן לָהֶם הַשֵּׁם אֶת הָאָרֶץ, כִּי בְּחוּצָה לָאָרֶץ אֵינָם חַיָּבִים לְמַנּוֹת לָהֶם ב"ד, אֲבָל כַּאֲשֶׁר יִצְעַק הַמְעֻוָּת יַעַמְדוּ עָלָיו הָרְאוּיִים לִשְׁפֹּט וּבְמִשְׁפְּטֵיהֶם יִשְׁפְּטוּהוּ, אוֹ יַעֲלֶה לָאָרֶץ בִּזְמַנָּהּ וְשָׁם יִשְׁפְּטוּהוּ בִּמְקוֹם הַמִּשְׁפָּט. וְהוֹסִיף בְּכָאן שׁוֹטְרִים, וְהֵם שֶׁיִּהְיוּ נוֹגְשִׂים בִּדְבַר הַמִּשְׁפָּט, וּלְפִי זֶה אֵין יִשְׂרָאֵל שֶׁבְּחוּצָה לָאָרֶץ מְצֻוִּים לְמַנּוֹת לָהֶם דַּיָּנִין בָּעֲיָרוֹת, וְכֵן כָּתַב הָרַב ר' מֹשֶׁה (הל' סנהדרין פ"א ה"ב). אֲבָל בְּמַסֶּכֶת מַכּוֹת (מכות ז') שָׁנוּ, וְהָיוּ אֵלֶּה לָכֶם לְחֻקַּת מִשְׁפָּט לְדֹרֹתֵיכֶם בְּכֹל מוֹשְׁבֹתֵיכֶם, מְלַמֵּד שֶׁסַּנְהֶדְרִין נוֹהֶגֶת בָּאָרֶץ וּבְחוּצָה לָאָרֶץ. אִם כֵּן לָמָּה נֶאֱמַר שֹׁפְטִים וְשֹׁטְרִים תִּתֶּן לְךָ בְּכָל שְׁעָרֶיךָ, אֶלָּא בָּאָרֶץ אַתָּה מוֹשִׁיב בְּכָל פֶּלֶךְ וָפֶלֶךְ וּבְכָל עִיר וָעִיר, בְּחוּצָה לָאָרֶץ אַתָּה מוֹשִׁיב בְּכָל פֶּלֶךְ וָפֶלֶךְ וְאִי אַתָּה מוֹשִׁיב בְּכָל עִיר וָעִיר. וְנִרְאֶה מִזֶּה שֶׁחַיָּבִין לִמְנוֹת סַנְהֶדְרִין בְּחוּצָה לָאָרֶץ, וְלֹא בְּכָל עִיר וָעִיר כְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל אֶלָּא פְּלָכִים פְּלָכִים, אִם כֵּן הַמִּצְוָה הַזֹּאת נוֹהֶגֶת בְּכָל זְמַן בְּדִינֵי מָמוֹנוֹת וּבִדְבָרִים הַנִּדּוֹנִין בְּחוּצָה לָאָרֶץ. אֲבָל בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה לְאַחַר שֶׁבָּטְלָה הַסְּמִיכָה, כֵּיוָן שֶׁכָּל הַמִּשְׁפָּטִים בְּטֵלִים מִן הַתּוֹרָה, דִּכְתִיב לִפְנֵיהֶם וְלֹא לִפְנֵי הֶדְיוֹטוֹת, וַאֲנַן הֶדְיוֹטוֹת אֲנַן, וְאֵין דַּיָּנִין בְּחוּצָה לָאָרֶץ אֶלָּא תַּקָּנָה דִּשְׁלִיחוּתַיְהוּ עָבְדִינַן (גיטין פח), אֵין אָנוּ חַיָּבִים בְּמִצְוַת מִנּוּי שׁוֹפְטִים מִן הַתּוֹרָה כְּלָל: וְטַעַם לִשְׁבָטֶיךָ, מוּסָב עַל תִּתֶּן לְךָ, מְלַמֵּד שֶׁמּוֹשִׁיבִים ב"ד בְּכָל שֵׁבֶט וָשֵׁבֶט וּבְכָל עִיר וָעִיר, לְשׁוֹן רַשִׁ"י (רש"י על דברים ט"ז:י"ח), וְכֵן בְּמַסֶּכֶת סַנְהֶדְרִין (סנהדרין ט"ז). וְלֹא יָדַעְתִּי פֵּרוּשׁ דָּבָר זֶה, כִּי כֵּיוָן שֶׁמָּנִינוּ ב"ד בְּכָל עִיר וָעִיר, הֲרֵי בָּתֵּי דִּינִין רַבִּים בְּכָל שֵׁבֶט וָשֵׁבֶט. אוּלַי בָּא לוֹמַר שֶׁאִם הָיְתָה עִיר אַחַת לִשְׁנֵי שְׁבָטִים, כִּירוּשָׁלַיִם שֶׁיֵּשׁ בָּהּ חֵלֶק לִיהוּדָה וּבִנְיָמִין, שֶׁיּוֹשִׁיב בָּהּ שְׁנֵי בָּתֵּי דִּינִים. וְכָךְ הֶעֱלוּ בְּפֶרֶק חֵלֶק (סנהדרין קיא), שֶׁחוֹלְקִים עִיר אַחַת לִשְׁנֵי שְׁבָטִים, וְכֵן יְרוּשָׁלַיִם הָיְתָה לִיהוּדָה וּבִנְיָמִין. וְיִתָּכֵן לְפָרֵשׁ שֶׁחִיֵּב הַכָּתוּב לְמַנּוֹת ב"ד עַל כָּל הַשֵּׁבֶט וְהוּא יִשְׁפֹּט אֶת כֻּלָּם, וְאַחֲרֵי כֵן נְמַנֶּה ב"ד בְּכָל עִיר וָעִיר שֶׁיִּשְׁפֹּט אֶת הָעִיר. ואע"פ שֶׁכֻּלָּם שָׁוִים בַּמִּנְיָן, שֶׁהֵם כ"ג בְּדִינֵי נְפָשׁוֹת וְג' בְּדִינֵי מָמוֹנוֹת, אֲבָל הַגְּדוֹלִים שֶׁבָּהֶם בְּחָכְמָה יִתְמַנּוּ עַל כָּל הַשֵּׁבֶט, וְתַחְתֵּיהֶם לְכָל עִיר וָעִיר, וְאֵין בַּעֲלֵי הַדִּין יְכוֹלִין לָכֹף זֶה אֶת זֶה לָדוּן אֶלָּא בִּפְנֵי ב"ד שֶׁבְּעִירָם לֹא בִּפְנֵי ב"ד שֶׁבְּעִיר אַחֶרֶת. וַאֲפִלּוּ הָיוּ שְׁנֵי בַּעֲלֵי הַדִּין בְּעִיר אַחֶרֶת יָכוֹל לוֹמַר נֵלֵךְ לִפְנֵי ב"ד שֶׁבְּעִירֵנוּ, אֲבָל ב"ד הַשֵּׁבֶט יָכוֹל לָכֹף כָּל אַנְשֵׁי שִׁבְטוֹ לָדוּן לְפָנָיו, וַאֲפִלּוּ הָיוּ הַנִּדּוֹנִים בְּעִירָם יָכוֹל לוֹמַר לב"ד הַגָּדוֹל שֶׁל שֵׁבֶט אָזֵילְנָא, וְכֵן אִם נִסְתַּפְּקוּ בָּתֵּי דִּינִין שֶׁל עֲיָרוֹת יָבֹאוּ לִפְנֵי ב"ד הַגָּדוֹל שֶׁל שֵׁבֶט וְיִשְׁאֲלוּ, כְּדֶרֶךְ שֶׁסַּנְהֶדְרֵי גְּדוֹלָה מְמֻנָּה עַל כָּל בָּתֵּי דִּינִין שֶׁל כָּל יִשְׂרָאֵל, כָּךְ יְהֵא ב"ד אֶחָד מְמֻנֶּה עַל כָּל שֵׁבֶט וָשֵׁבֶט. וְאִם הֻצְרְכוּ לְתַקֵּן וְלִגְזֹר דָּבָר עַל שֵׁבֶט שֶׁלָּהֶם גּוֹזְרִין וּמְתַקְּנִין, וְהִיא לַשֵּׁבֶט כִּגְזֵרַת סַנְהֶדְרֵי גְּדוֹלָה עַל כָּל יִשְׂרָאֵל. וְזֶה הב"ד הוּא הַמֻּזְכָּר בְּמַסֶּכֶת הוֹרָיוֹת (הוריות ה') שֶׁשָּׁנִינוּ בּוֹ, הוֹרוּ בֵּית דִּין שֶׁל אֶחָד מִן הַשְּׁבָטִים וְעָשָׂה אוֹתוֹ הַשֵּׁבֶט עַל פִּיהֶם, אוֹתוֹ הַשֵּׁבֶט חַיָּב וּשְׁאָר הַשְּׁבָטִים פְּטוּרִים וְכוּ'. וְעַל דֶּרֶךְ הַפְּשָׁט שִׁעוּר הַכָּתוּב שֹׁפְטִים וְשׁוֹטְרִים תִּתֶּן לְךָ לִשְׁבָטֶיךָ בְּכָל שְׁעָרֶיךָ, יֹאמַר שֶׁיִּתְּנוּ שׁוֹפְטִים לְשִׁבְטֵיהֶם וְהֵם יִשְׁפְּטוּ בְּכָל שַׁעֲרֵיהֶם, וְשׁוֹפֵט הַשֵּׁבֶט יִשְׁפֹּט בְּכָל שְׁעָרָיו:

JUDGES ‘V’SHOTRIM’ SHALT THOU MAKE THEE IN ALL THY GATES WHICH THE ETERNAL THY G-D GIVETH THEE. He has commanded in the Torah, the word of both parties shall come before ha’elohim (the judges); and he shall pay as the judges determine. If so, He commanded [by implication] that Israel is to have judges, and here he [Moses] explained that they are to appoint judges in all their cities when G-d will give them the Land. For outside of the Land they are not required to appoint a court for themselves; rather, when an aggrieved party complains, people qualified to judge are to arise for him and according to their ordinances shall they judge it. Or the parties are to go up to the Land in the proper time [i.e., when there are courts of ordained judges functioning in the Land of Israel], and there, they will adjudicate it in the place of righteousness. He added here [that it is obligatory to appoint] shotrim, who are the ones that execute the judgment. Accordingly, Israelites living outside of the Land are not commanded to appoint for themselves judges in the cities. And so wrote Harav Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon. But in Tractate Makkoth the Rabbis have taught: “And these things shall be for a statute of judgment unto you throughout your generations in all your dwellings. This teaches that the laws of Sanhedrin are binding both within and without the Land. If so, why is it stated Judges and officers shalt thou make thee in all thy gates? In the Land you are to appoint [judges] in every district and in every city; outside the Land you are to appoint [judges] in every district, but you are not obligated to do so in every city.” From this text it would appear that we are required to appoint a Sanhedrin outside the Land — not in every city as in the Land of Israel, but in every district. If so, this commandment is binding at all times in civil cases and in matters that may be adjudicated outside the Land. Nowadays, however, that ordination has ceased, since, according to Torah-law, all judicial functions are void — for it is written, “[And these are the ordinances which thou shalt set] before them, and not before commoners ” and we [not being ordained,] are commoners, and would not be empowered to adjudicate outside the Land except for the Rabbinical ordinance that we “carry out the commission of the former ones [who had received ordination]” — we are not at all bound, according to Torah-law, by the commandment to appoint judges. THROUGHOUT THY TRIBES. “This refers to the expression [at the beginning of the verse] shalt thou make thee. This teaches that courts are to be set up in each and every tribe, and in each and every city.” This is Rashi’s language, and so it is also stated in Tractate Sanhedrin. But I know not the meaning of this text, for, since we have appointed courts in each and every city, there are many courts in every tribe [thus making it redundant to specify “throughout thy tribes”]! Perhaps the intent of the verse is to state that if there is a city belonging to two tribes, such as Jerusalem in which there is a share for [the tribe of] Judah and [for the tribe of] Benjamin, that we are to seat two courts therein. And so the Rabbis concluded in Chapter Cheilek that they may divide one city among two tribes, and so, indeed, was Jerusalem shared by Judah and Benjamin. And it is possible to explain that Scripture obligated [the nation] to appoint a court [exercising authority] over the whole tribe and it is to judge all [its people], and then we are to appoint a court for each and every city that is to judge that [particular] city. Now, although all these courts were alike in number of judges, consisting of twenty-three in criminal cases and three in civil cases, [people] most superior in wisdom among them were appointed over the whole tribe, while those inferior to them [were designated for the courts] of each and every city. Parties to a suit could force one another to adjudicate only before the court in their city, not before the court of another city. Even if both parties happened to be in another city one could still say, “Let us go before the court of our own city.” But the [supreme] court of the tribe could force any of the people of that tribe to stand trial before it. And even if the litigants are in their own city one can still say, “I want to go to the Great Court of the tribe.” Similarly, if the courts of the cities are in doubt [concerning the law], they are to come before the Great Court of the tribe and request [its decision]. Thus just as a Great Sanhedrin [of seventy-one judges] was appointed over all courts of all Israel, so one [supreme] court was to be appointed over each and every tribe. And if [the judges of that court] found it necessary to ordain or decree any matter for their own tribe, they were empowered to so decree and ordain and, to that tribe, their word was equivalent to the decree of the Great Sanhedrin over all Israel. This is “the court” mentioned in Tractate Horayoth wherein we are taught, “If the court of one of the tribes rendered a decision [that was unwittingly contrary to a negative commandment, punishable by excision] and that tribe acted according to their word, that tribe is obligated [to bring the prescribed offering], but the rest of the tribes are not liable.” And by way of the plain meaning of Scripture the sense of the verse is [to be inverted as follows]: “Judges and officers shalt thou make thee throughout all thy tribes in all thy gates,” the verse stating that they are to appoint judges over their tribes, and they are to judge in all their gates. Thus the judges of the tribe are to judge in all its cities.

Source 21 · Rishonim
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Kuzari — Divine Law and Political Order

Kuzari 2:46-48:3

Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi argues that the Torah's law is divinely calibrated to produce both individual perfection and a rightly ordered society; the divine law is superior to purely rational political law because it accounts for both the heavenly and earthly dimensions of human communal life.

(מח) אָמַר הֶחָבֵר: אֵלֶּה וְהַדּוֹמֶה לָהֶם הֵם הַחֻקִּים הַשִּׂכְלִיִּים, וְהֵם הַקְדָּמוֹת וְהַצָּעוֹת לָתּוֹרָה הָאֱלֹהִית, קוֹדְמוֹת לָהּ בְּטֶבַע וּבִזְמָן, אִי אֶפְשָׁר בִּלְעֲדֵיהֶם בְּהַנְהָגַת אֵיזוֹ קְהִלָּה שֶׁתִּהְיֶה מִבְּנֵי אָדָם, עַד שֶׁקְּהַל הַלִּסְטִים אִי אֶפְשָׁר שֶׁלֹּא יְקַבְּלוּ הַצֶּדֶק בֵּינֵיהֶם, וְאִם לֹא, לֹא הָיְתָה מַתְמֶדֶת חֶבְרָתָם. וְכַאֲשֶׁר הִגִּיעַ הַמְּרִי מִבְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל אֶל עִנְיָן, שֶׁהֵקֵלּוּ בַּתּוֹרוֹת הַשִּׂכְלִיּוֹת וְהַמִּנְהֲגִיּוֹת, אֲשֶׁר אִי אֶפְשָׁר מִבַּלְעֲדֵיהֶם לְכָל קְהִלָּה, כַּאֲשֶׁר אִי אֶפְשָׁר לְכָל יָחִיד מִבַּלְעֲדֵי הַדְּבָרִים הַטִּבְעִיִּים מֵאֲכִילָה וּשְׁתִיָּה וּתְנוּעָה וּמְנוּחָה וְשֵׁנָה וִיקִיצָה, וְהֶחֱזִיקוּ עִם זֶה בַעֲבוֹדוֹת מִקָּרְבָּנוֹת וְזוּלָתָם מִן הַתּוֹרוֹת הָאֱלֹהִיּוֹת הַשִּׁמְעִיּוֹת, הִסְתַּפֵּק מֵהֶם בְּפָחוֹת, וְאָמַר: וּלְוַאי שֶׁתִּשְׁמְרוּ הַתּוֹרוֹת שֶׁשּׁוֹמְרִים אוֹתָם הַפּחָוּת שֶׁבַּקְּהִלּוֹת, וְהַקַּל שֶׁבָּהֶם – מֵהַצֶּדֶק וְהַדֶּרֶךְ הַטּוֹבָה וְהַהוֹדָאָה בְטוּב הַבּוֹרֵא. כִּי הַתּוֹרוֹת הָאֱלֹהִיּוֹת לֹא תֻשְׁלַמְנָה אֶלָּא אַחַר הַשְׁלָמַת הַתּוֹרוֹת הַמִּנְהֲגִיּוֹת וְהַשִּׂכְלִיּוֹת, וּבַתּוֹרוֹת הַשִּׂכְלִיּוֹת קַבָּלַת הַצֶּדֶק וְהַהוֹדָאָה בְטוּב הַבּוֹרֵא, וּמִי שֶׁלֹּא הֶחֱזִיק בָּאֵלֶּה, אֵיךְ מַחֲזִיק בַּקָּרְבָּנוֹת וּבַשַּׁבָּת וְהַמִּילָה וְזוּלָתָם, מִמַּה שֶּׁאֵין הַשֵּׂכֶל מְחַיְּבוֹ וְלֹא מַרְחִיקוֹ, וְהֵם הַתּוֹרוֹת אֲשֶׁר בָּהֶם הִתְיַחֲדוּ בְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל תּוֹסֶפֶת עַל הַשִּׂכְלִיּוֹת, וּבָהֶם הָיְתָה לָהֶם יִתְרוֹן הָעִנְיָן הָאֱלֹהִי. וְלֹא יָדְעוּ אֵיךְ יִתְחַיְּבוּ אֵלּוּ הַתּוֹרוֹת, כַּאֲשֶׁר לֹא יָדְעוּ, אֵיךְ יָרַד כְּבוֹד ה' בֵּינֵיהֶם וְאֵשׁ ה' עַל קָרְבְּנוֹתָם, וְאֵיךְ שָׁמְעוּ דִבּוּר הָאֵל, וְאֵיךְ אֵרַע לָהֶם כָּל מַה שֶּׁאֵרַע, מִמַּה שֶּׁאֵין הַדֵּעוֹת מְקַבְּלוֹת אוֹתוֹ לוּלֵא הַמַּעֲמָדוֹת וּרְאוּת הָעַיִן אֲשֶׁר אֵין בּוֹ מִדְחֶה. וְעַל הַדֶּרֶךְ הַזֶּה נֶאֱמַר לָהֶם: "וּמָה ה' דּוֹרֵשׁ מִמְּךָ", וְ"עֹלוֹתֵיכֶם סְפוּ עַל־זִבְחֵיכֶם", וְזוּלַת זֶה מִמַּה שֶּׁדּוֹמֶה לוֹ. הֲיִתָּכֵן שֶׁיַּחֲזִיק הַיִּשְׂרְאֵלִי בַּעֲשׂוֹת מִשְׁפָּט וְאַהֲבַת חֶסֶד, וְיַעֲזֹב הַמִּילָה וְהַשַּׁבָּת וְתוֹרוֹת הַפֶּסַח וּשְׁאָר הַתּוֹרוֹת וְיַצְלִיחַ?

48. The Rabbi: These are the rational laws, being the basis and preamble of the divine law, preceding it in character and time, and being indispensable in the administration of every human society. Even a gang of robbers must have a kind of justice among them if their confederacy is to last. When Israel's disloyalty had come to such a pass that they disregarded rational and social principles (which are as absolutely necessary for a society as are the natural functions of eating, drinking, exercise, rest, sleeping, and waking for the individual), but held fast to the sacrificial worship and other divine laws, He was satisfied with even less. It was told to them: 'Haply you might observe those laws which rule the smallest and meanest community, such as refer to justice, good actions, and recognition of God's bounty.' For the divine law cannot become complete till the social and rational laws are perfected. The rational law demands justice and recognition of God's bounty. What has he, who fails in this respect, to do with offerings, Sabbath, circumcision, etc., which reason neither demands, nor forbids? These are, however, the ordinations especially given to Israel as a corollary to the rational laws. Through this they received the advantage of the Divine Influence, without knowing how it came to pass that the 'Glory of God' descended upon them, and that 'the fire of God' consumed their offerings; how they heard the allocution of the Lord; and how their history developed. These are matters which reason would refuse to believe if they were not guaranteed by irrefutable evidence. In a similar sense it was said to them: 'What doth the Lord thy God require of thee?' (Deuteronomy 10:12) and 'Add your burnt offerings' (Jeremiah 7:21), and similar verses. Can it be imagined that the Israelites observe 'the doing of justice and the love of mercy;' but neglect circumcision, Sabbath, and the other laws, and felt happy withal?

Source 23 · Rishonim
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Rambam, Guide for the Perplexed II:40 — Divine vs. Political Law

Guide for the Perplexed, Part 2.40:5

Rambam distinguishes between purely conventional political laws, which aim only at bodily welfare and social order, and divine Torah law, which perfects both the body and the soul; the Jewish governance system uniquely integrates both aims — the practical order of the king and the spiritual order of the Torah courts — into a single divine scheme.

5 כשתמצא תורה שכל תכליתה וכל כוונת מנהיגה שקבע את מעשיה אינן אלא הסדרת המדינה ומצביה והסרת העושק והאלימות ממנה, ואין בה שום פנייה לעניינים עיוניים, ואין בה תשומת לב להשלמת הכוח ההוגה, ואין בה התחשבות בדעות, תהיינה נכונות או משובשות, אלא כל כוונתה היא הסדרת מצבי בני האדם אלה עם אלה באיזו דרך שתהיה, ושישיגו אושר מדומה כלשהו לפי דעתו של המנהיג ההוא – אז תדע שהתורה הזאת היא תחיקתית, והמחוקק אותה הוא מן הקבוצה השלישית, כמו שהזכרנו (ב,לז), כלומר מן השלמים בכוח המדמה בלבד. אך כשתמצא תורה שבכל הנהגותיה היא מתייחסת הן לתיקון המצבים הגופניים הן לתיקון ההאמנה, כאמור לעיל, ותשים דגש על מתן דעות נכונות על ה' יתעלה תחילה ועל המלאכים, ותשתדל להחכים את האדם ולתת לו הבנה ולהעירו עד שידע את המציאות כולה בצורתה האמיתית – כי אז תדע שההנהגה הזאת היא מלפניו יתעלה, ושהתורה ההיא אלוהית.

You will find that the sole object of certain laws, in accordance with the intention of their author, who well considered their effect, is to establish the good order of the state and its affairs, to free it from all mischief and wrong: these laws do not deal with philosophic problems, contain no teaching for the perfecting of our logical faculties, and are not concerned about the existence of sound or unsound opinions. Their sole object is to arrange, under all circumstances, the relations of men to each other, and to secure their well-being, in accordance with the view of the author of these laws. These laws are political, and their author belongs, as has been stated above, to the third class, viz., to those who only distinguish themselves by the perfection of their imaginative faculties. You will also find laws which, in all their rules, aim, as the law just mentioned, at the improvement of the material interests of the people: but, besides, tend to improve the state of the faith of man, to create first correct notions of God, and of angels, and to lead then the people, by instruction and education, to an accurate knowledge of the Universe: this education comes from God; these laws are divine.

Source 24 · Acharonim
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Or HaChaim on Deuteronomy

Or HaChaim on Deuteronomy 17:14

The passage explains that while Israel may request a king like other nations, God commands that such a king must be appointed through the Sanhedrin and a prophet, operating according to divine selection rather than following the pattern of gentile rulers who pursue sensual benefit instead of proper judgment.

וְנִרְאֶה שֶׁכַּוָּנַת הַכְּתוּבִים הִיא עַל זֶה הַדֶּרֶךְ, לְפִי שֶׁיֵּשׁ בְּמִנּוּי הַמֶּלֶךְ שְׁנֵי גְּדָרִים: אֶחָד שֶׁיִּהְיֶה הַמִּבְטָח בּוֹ לְהַנְהִיג הַמִּלְחָמוֹת בְּעֹצֶם חָכְמָתוֹ וְלָצֵאת כְּגִבּוֹר בְּיוֹם קְרָב כְּסֵדֶר מַלְכֵי הָאֻמּוֹת, וְזֶה הוּא דָּבָר שָׂנאוּי בְּעֵינֵי ה׳, כִּי סֵדֶר מַלְכֵי הָאֻמּוֹת לֹא יֵלְכוּ בָּהֶם אַחֲרֵי כִּשְׁרוֹן הַמַּעֲשֶׂה אֶלָּא אַחֲרֵי תּוֹעֲלִיּוֹת הַחוּשִׁיּוֹת, הֲגַם שֶׁלֹּא יִמָּצֵא בּוֹ דָּבָר טוֹב מֵהַמֻּשְׂכָּל, גַּם יָשִׂימוּ בּוֹ כִּסְלָם וְתִקְוָתָם וּמִן ה׳ יָסוּר לְבָבָם. וְגָדֵר שֵׁנִי הוּא לִכְבוֹד וּלְתִפְאֶרֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל וּכְדֵי שֶׁה׳ יַעֲשֶׂה בִּזְכוּתוֹ כְּדֶרֶךְ שֶׁהָיָה ה׳ מוֹשִׁיעַ יִשְׂרָאֵל בְּיַד הַשּׁוֹפְטִים וּבְיַד מַלְכֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל הַכְּשֵׁרִים, וְצֵא וּלְמַד מִדָּוִד הַמֶּלֶךְ וְכוּ׳, וְדָבָר זֶה הוּא חֵן וְשֵׂכֶל טוֹב בְּעֵינֵי אֱלֹהִים וְאָדָם. וְלָזֶה בָּא דְּבָרוֹ הַטּוֹב כָּאן וְאָמַר כִּי תָבֹא וְגוֹ׳ וְאָמַרְתָּ אָשִׂימָה עָלַי מֶלֶךְ כְּכָל הַגּוֹיִם וְגוֹ׳, וְזֶה גָּדֵר הָרִאשׁוֹן שֶׁזָּכַרְנוּ, וְגָמַר אוֹמֵר שׂוֹם תָּשִׂים וְגוֹ׳, פֵּרוּשׁ, לֹא יָקוּם הַדָּבָר הָרַע הַזֶּה, אֶלָּא הַמְּשִׂימוֹת שֶׁתָּשִׂים הוּא עַל זֶה הַדֶּרֶךְ אֲשֶׁר יִבְחַר ה׳ אֱלֹהֶיךָ בּוֹ. וְאָמְרוּ רַבּוֹתֵינוּ זִכְרוֹנָם לִבְרָכָה (תוספתא סנהדרין פ״ג) וְזֶה לְשׁוֹנָם: אֵין מַעֲמִידִין מֶלֶךְ בַּתְּחִלָּה אֶלָּא עַל פִּי בֵּית דִּין שֶׁל שִׁבְעִים זְקֵנִים וְעַל פִּי נָבִיא וְכוּ׳, עַד כָּאן. וּמֶלֶךְ הַמִּתְמַנֶּה בְּסֵדֶר זֶה אֵינוֹ כְּסֵדֶר מֶלֶךְ הַמִּתְמַנֶּה עַל הַגּוֹיִם כְּמוֹ שֶׁבָּא בְּדִבְרֵיהֶם ״כְּכָל הַגּוֹיִם״. וּכְפִי זֶה מַאֲמַר שׂוֹם תָּשִׂים הִיא מִצְוָה וּשְׁלִילַת גָּדֵר שֶׁכְּנֶגֶד תְּנָאֶיהָ. וְלָזֶה נִתְחַכֵּם ה׳ לְהַקְדִּים מַאֲמַר וְאָמַרְתָּ אָשִׂימָה וְגוֹ׳ לְהָעִירְךָ אֶת אֲשֶׁר יְכַוֵּן אֵלָיו, לִשְׁלֹל אוֹתוֹ בְּמַאֲמַר ״שׂוֹם תָּשִׂים״ וְגוֹ׳, שֶׁזּוּלַת זֶה לֹא הָיִיתִי מֵבִין שֶׁאוֹסֵר לָשׂוּם מֶלֶךְ כְּכָל הַגּוֹיִם, וַהֲגַם שֶׁיֹּאמַר ״אֲשֶׁר יִבְחַר״, אֵין מוּבָן שֶׁבָּא לֶאֱסֹר כְּכָל הַגּוֹיִם וְיִהְיֶה זֶה וָזֶה, וְלֹא חָשׁ לְהָבִין בְּמַאֲמַר ״שׂוֹם תָּשִׂים״ שֶׁהוּא רְשׁוּת מִכֶּפֶל ״שׂוֹם תָּשִׂים״.

It appears to us that the best way to understand the wording of the verse is as follows. There may be two reasons why the people want to appoint a king. 1) They want a king with superior intelligence in whose ability to conduct wars successfully they have confidence. They want him to be able to compete successfully with the bravery, etc., of Gentile kings. This is something G'd mightily disapproves of. The reason for this is that the kings of the Gentile nations are not motivated by what is right but merely what appears expedient, even if objectively speaking their undertakings are not even useful in the long run. Not only that, but they do not trust in G'd but in their own prowess. The second reason for Israelites wanting a king is that they want their king to represent the glory of Israel, G'd's people. They want the king to be the kind of person on whose account (merits) G'd will make the whole nation successful in its undertakings. G'd had done so repeatedly in the days of the Judges when the merit of the individual judge ensured that G'd would grant him victory over enemies who were (or appeared) much stronger. King David too enjoyed success all the time becaue he merited G'd's personal assistance. The request to appoint this kind of king is one which G'd approves of. This is why our verse commences with: "when you come to the land and you want to appoint a king over yourself to match what other nations are doing, etc." Clearly, here the Torah describes the first of the two scenarios we described for the Israelites wanting a king. This is the scenario, which, basically, G'd does not approve of. The verse concludes with the Torah encouraging us to appoint a king, i.e. שום תשים. This means that the prerequisite for the Israelites appointing a king is that G'd approves, i.e. אשר יבחר ה׳ אלוקיך (you consult the Supreme Court of 71 elders who in turn consult with a prophet as they are G'd's representatives). When a king is appointed on such a basis he cannot be compared to the kind of king Gentile nations appoint for themselves. Under such conditions we are entitled to understand the words שום תשים עליך מלך as a positive commandment. These words are simultaneously a positive commandment and a negative commandment not to appoint the wrong kind of king for the wrong reasons. Without these words I would have assumed that the appointment of a king with the powers of kings amongst Gentile nations was altogether forbidden. Even though the Torah also writes that a Jewish king is subject to being chosen by G'd, i.e. אשר יבחר ה׳ אלקיך, this would not have been enough to forbid the monarchy as a valid form of government in a Jewish state. Once the Torah wrote שום תשים, repeating the instruction, it was not worried that we would interpret the verse as merely offering us the monarchy as an option.

Source 25 · Acharonim
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Meshekh Chokhmah, Shoftim

Meshekh Chokhmah, Shoftim 29

The passage explains that when appointing a successor, the choice depends on you to select whom you wish, not on the appointed one himself to choose his own replacement.

מת מנה אחר תחתיו, פי' שלא יוכל למנות הוא לאחר תחתיו עליך, רק בך תלוי שאתה תבחר ולא הוא.

Source 26 · Acharonim
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Maharal, Netivot Olam — Netiv HaDin

Netivot Olam, Netiv Hadin

The Maharal teaches that the path of justice (din) is one of the pillars upon which the world stands, but that perfect divine justice, if applied literally, would destroy the world — therefore human governance must balance strict judgment with broader considerations of societal peace and repair.

ועל ידי המשפט הקב"ה מתעלה בעולמו כדכתיב ויגבה ה' צבאות במשפט, כי הש"י אשר אליו המשפט בפרט כאשר המשפט הוא בעה"ז אז מתגבה השופט על הנשפט. אבל אם השם ית' בעצמו עושה משפט בעולמו ובעולם אין משפט אינו מתגבה כ"כ, רק כאשר המשפט הוא בעה"ז ובזה ממליכין את המלך המשפט כאשר התחתונים עצמם רוצים במשפט כאשר עושים משפט, ובזה מקבלים עליהם מלך המשפט ומגביהים אותו, ולפיכך כתיב ויגבה ה' צבאות במשפט. וכאשר מתגבה הש"י במשפט ויושב על כסא דין אז יושב ג"כ על כסא צדקה, כי יש לו כסא דין ויש לו כסא צדקה, שהכסא מורה על שהוא יתב' מתנשא ומתגבה על עולמו ולפיכך ויגבה ה' צבאות במשפט שהוא כסא הדין, ואז הוא עושה ג"כ צדקה שיש לו כסא דין וכסא צדקה.

Source 27 · Hasidic
Verified

Chiddushei HaRim

Chiddushei HaRim on Torah, Shoftim

Explains the need for a monarchy to preserve social order, integrating it with Halakhic structures.

שכשהוא מצד מעשיו הטובים קשה לו לסבול אנשים פשוטים שאינם כראוי. משא"כ כשיודע השופט שגם לו אין כלום מצד מעשיו רק חסד ורחמים מהשי"ת. ממילא חסדי ה' ורחמיו מגיעים על כל ישראל וידונם לכף זכות כמו שפי' בצדק תשפוט הוי דן כו' שהאמת כן שעצם כל איש מישראל טוב וכרישי דעמא כן כולהון שכל א' שנפתח לו הארה ידע שהוא חסד ה' וגם שוטרים שיכניס הארה זו אל נקודת הלב שיהי' כל מעשיו נמשכין לזה כמ"ש אחזתיו כו' אל בית אמי כו'. גם תתן לך שיעמידו עליהם מנהיגים המלמדים זכות על ישראל כמו שאמרו זה שפט עתניאל בן קנז ראה ראיתי כו' בין זכאי כו' עליו להושיעם:

Source 28 · Hasidic
External

Netivot Shalom

Netivot Shalom Netiv HaMishpat

Explores the dual role of Torah law and the king’s rule in ensuring a just and orderly society, integrating Hasidic perspectives.

Source 29 · Hasidic
Verified

Kedushat Levi — Parshat Shoftim

Kedushat Levi, Deuteronomy, Shoftim:1

The Kedushat Levi reads 'justice, justice shall you pursue' as pointing to two kinds of justice — the external legal order of the courts and the inner spiritual order of the soul; the king embodies the unification of these forces, serving as a conduit between the divine will and the earthly realm of human society.

שופטים ושוטרים תתן לך בכל שעריך כו' ושפטו את העם משפט צדק (דברים טו, יח). דהנה הקדוש ברוך הוא שופט את הכנסת ישראל בבוא יום המשפט בגודל רחמיו וחסדיו. אך צריכין אתערותא דלתתא לעורר את המדה של רחמנות למעלה. ועל ידי מה נתעורר אותו המדה של חסד, כשאנו למטה מתנהגים בחסד ולמדים זכות על כל איש מישראל לדונן לכף זכות ואז על ידי זה גם מלמעלה נתעורר אותו המדה ולמדין גם עליו וגם על כל זרע ישראל חסדים. ואם כן האדם מעורר בעובדא שלמטה השער העליון לפתוח שערי חסד להריק ברכה על כל זרע ישראל. וזה שכתוב שופטים ושוטרים תתן לך בכל שעריך, רוצה לומר שאתה בעצמך תתקן ותכין המשפט של מעלה על ידי שעריך, והוא השערים שלך שאתה עושה ומעורר במעשיך. וזהו ושפטו את העם משפט צדק, רוצה לומר כל איש ילמוד את עצמו להתנהג לשפוט את העם משפט צדק ללמד צדקה וזכות על כל זרע ישראל ואז האדם מעורר השער של מעלה ועל ידי זה יוצא בדין זכאי במשפט של מעלה, כי במדה שאדם מודד מודדין לו:

Deuteronomy 16,18. “Judges and law enforcers you ‎shall appoint in your “gates”‎‏ ‏‎ who will judge the people ‎fairly.” While it is true, as we all know that G’d sits in ‎judgment of the people of Israel on New Year’s Day, at which ‎time He exercises His love as well as His mercy, there is still a need ‎for justice being meted out down here on earth by human, i.e. ‎mortal judges. The judges meting out justice on earth must also ‎reflect the attribute of Mercy employed in the celestial spheres. ‎When judges here on earth emulate the approach to the accused ‎displayed in the celestial spheres, i.e. to assume that even if ‎guilty, there are some excuses to be found for the conduct of the ‎accused, then we can hope that, by taking this into consideration, ‎our own judgment on New Year’s day will also reflect this ‎consideration shown to sinners who had fallen victim to the evil ‎urge.‎ From the above, it is clear that it is within our power, down ‎here on earth to ”open” the gates of loving kindness, the source ‎of G’d’s blessings for mankind. This is the reason that the Torah ‎linked the dispensation of fair justice to “all your gates.” The ‎Torah tells us that we ourselves must initiate the process of ‎justice by giving anyone who appears to commit a wrong the ‎benefit of the doubt, i.e. as the Talmud in Megillah 12 words ‎it: ”man is measured by the yardsticks he applies to others.”‎

Source 30 · Hasidic
External

Toldot Yaakov Yosef — Parshat Shoftim

Toldot Yaakov Yosef, Shoftim

The Toldot Yaakov Yosef (disciple of the Baal Shem Tov) reflects on the appointment of judges and kings as representing two aspects of divine service — the strict path of law (din) and the encompassing path of love and communal leadership — both necessary for the repair of the world.

Source 31 · Modern
Verified

Orot

Orot, Lights from Darkness, War 1

Rav Kook elaborates on the interplay between religious law and political leadership in establishing a moral society.

היחידים הנספים בלא משפט, שבתוך המהפכה של שטף המלחמה, יש בה ממדת מיתת צדיקים המכפרת, עולים הם למעלה בשורש החיים ועצמות חייהם מביא ערך כללי לטובה ולברכה אל כלל בנין העולם בכל ערכיו ומובניו. "בעל מלחמות זורע צדקות, מצמיח ישועות, בורא רפואות, נורא תהלות, אדון הנפלאות, המחדש בטובו בכל יום תמיד מעשה בראשית, אור חדש על ציון תאיר ונזכה כולנו מהרה לאורו"[1].