Judicial Authority and Authorization in Halakha

לֹֽא־תַכִּ֨ירוּ פָנִ֜ים בַּמִּשְׁפָּ֗ט כַּקָּטֹ֤ן כַּגָּדֹל֙ תִּשְׁמָע֔וּן לֹ֤א תָג֙וּרוּ֙ מִפְּנֵי־אִ֔ישׁ כִּ֥י הַמִּשְׁפָּ֖ט לֵאלֹהִ֣ים ה֑וּא וְהַדָּבָר֙ אֲשֶׁ֣ר יִקְשֶׁ֣ה מִכֶּ֔ם תַּקְרִב֥וּן אֵלַ֖י וּשְׁמַעְתִּֽיו׃

And any matter that is too difficult for you, you shall bring to me and I will hear it.”

וּבָאתָ֗ אֶל־הַכֹּהֲנִים֙ הַלְוִיִּ֔ם וְאֶ֨ל־הַשֹּׁפֵ֔ט אֲשֶׁ֥ר יִהְיֶ֖ה בַּיָּמִ֣ים הָהֵ֑ם וְדָרַשְׁתָּ֙ וְהִגִּ֣ידוּ לְךָ֔ אֵ֖ת דְּבַ֥ר הַמִּשְׁפָּֽט׃

and appear before the levitical priests, or the magistrate in charge at the time, and present your problem. When they have announced to you the verdict in the case,

אָמַר רַב: הַאי מַאן דְּבָעֵי לְמֵידַן דִּינָא, וְאִי טְעָה מִיבְעֵי לְמִיפְּטַר – לִישְׁקוֹל רְשׁוּתָא מִבֵּי רֵישׁ גָּלוּתָא. וְכֵן אָמַר שְׁמוּאֵל: לִשְׁקוֹל רְשׁוּתָא מִבֵּי רֵישׁ גָּלוּתָא.

§ Rav says: One who wants to adjudicate a case and wants to be exempt from payment of restitution if he errs in his judgment must receive permission from the Exilarch to judge cases. And similarly, Shmuel says: In such a case he must receive permission from the Exilarch. Once he receives permission, even an erroneous decision carries halakhic force and therefore it is as if he did not err.

תָּנוּ רַבָּנַן: אֵיזֶהוּ עַם הָאָרֶץ? — כֹּל שֶׁאֵינוֹ קוֹרֵא קְרִיאַת שְׁמַע עַרְבִית וְשַׁחֲרִית, דִּבְרֵי רַבִּי אֱלִיעֶזֶר. רַבִּי יְהוֹשֻׁעַ אוֹמֵר: כֹּל שֶׁאֵינוֹ מַנִּיחַ תְּפִילִּין. בֶּן עַזַּאי אוֹמֵר: כֹּל שֶׁאֵין לוֹ צִיצִית בְּבִגְדוֹ. רַבִּי נָתָן אוֹמֵר: כֹּל שֶׁאֵין מְזוּזָה עַל פִּתְחוֹ. רַבִּי נָתָן בַּר יוֹסֵף אוֹמֵר: כֹּל שֶׁיֵּשׁ לוֹ בָּנִים וְאֵינוֹ מְגַדְּלָם לְתַלְמוּד תּוֹרָה. אֲחֵרִים אוֹמְרִים: אֲפִילּוּ קָרָא וְשָׁנָה וְלֹא שִׁמֵּשׁ תַּלְמִידֵי חֲכָמִים הֲרֵי זֶה עַם הָאָרֶץ. אָמַר רַב הוּנָא: הֲלָכָה כַּאֲחֵרִים. רָמֵי בַּר חָמָא לָא אַזְמֵין עֲלֵיהּ דְּרַב מְנַשְּׁיָא בַּר תַּחְלִיפָא דְּתָנֵי סִיפְרָא וְסִפְרֵי וְהִלְכְתָא. כִּי נָח נַפְשֵׁיהּ דְּרָמֵי בַּר חָמָא, אָמַר רָבָא: לָא נָח נַפְשֵׁיהּ דְּרָמֵי בַּר חָמָא אֶלָּא דְּלָא אַזְמֵין אַרַב מְנַשְּׁיָא בַּר תַּחְלִיפָא. וְהָתַנְיָא — אֲחֵרִים אוֹמְרִים אֲפִילּוּ קָרָא וְשָׁנָה וְלֹא שִׁמֵּשׁ תַּלְמִידֵי חֲכָמִים הֲרֵי זֶה עַם הָאָרֶץ? שָׁאנֵי רַב מְנַשְּׁיָא בַּר תַּחְלִיפָא דִּמְשַׁמַּע לְהוּ לְרַבָּנַן, וְרָמֵי בַּר חָמָא הוּא דְּלָא דָּק אַבָּתְרֵיהּ. לִישָּׁנָא אַחֲרִינָא: דְּשָׁמַע שְׁמַעְתָּתָא מִפּוּמַּיְיהוּ דְרַבָּנַן וְגָרֵיס לְהוּ — כְּצוֹרְבָא מֵרַבָּנָן דָּמֵי.

The Gemara cites a baraita with additional opinions with regard to the defining characteristics of an am ha’aretz: The Sages taught: Who is an am ha’aretz? One who does not recite Shema in the evening and morning. This is the statement of Rabbi Eliezer. Rabbi Yehoshua says: An am ha’aretz is one who does not don phylacteries. Ben Azzai says: An am ha’aretz is one who does not have ritual fringes on his garment. Rabbi Natan says: An am ha’aretz is one who does not have a mezuza on his doorway. Rabbi Natan bar Yosef says: An am ha’aretz is one who has children but who does not want them to study Torah, so he does not raise them to engage in Torah study. Aḥerim say: Even if one read the Bible and studied Mishna and did not serve Torah scholars to learn from them the meaning of the Torah that he studied, that is an am ha’aretz. Rav Huna said: The halakha is in accordance with the opinion of Aḥerim. The Gemara relates: Rami bar Ḥama did not include Rav Menashya bar Taḥlifa, who studied Sifra, Sifrei, and halakhot, in a zimmun because he had merely studied and did not serve Torah scholars. When Rami bar Ḥama passed away, Rava said: Rami bar Ḥama died only because he did not include Rabbi Menashya bar Taḥlifa in a zimmun. The Gemara asks: Was it not taught in a baraita: Aḥerim say: Even if one read the Bible and studied mishna and did not serve Torah scholars, that is an am ha’aretz? Why, then, was Rami bar Ḥama punished? The Gemara answers: Rav Menashya bar Taḥlifa is different, as he served the Sages. And it was Rami bar Ḥama who was not precise in his efforts to check after him to ascertain his actions. Another version of the Gemara’s answer: Anyone who hears halakhot from the mouths of Sages and studies them is considered a Torah scholar.

יְהוֹשֻׁעַ בֶּן פְּרַחְיָה וְנִתַּאי הָאַרְבֵּלִי קִבְּלוּ מֵהֶם. יְהוֹשֻׁעַ בֶּן פְּרַחְיָה אוֹמֵר, עֲשֵׂה לְךָ רַב, וּקְנֵה לְךָ חָבֵר, וֶהֱוֵי דָן אֶת כָּל הָאָדָם לְכַף זְכוּת:

Joshua ben Perahiah and Nittai the Arbelite received [the oral tradition] from them. Joshua ben Perahiah used to say: appoint for thyself a teacher, and acquire for thyself a companion and judge all men with the scale weighted in his favor.

וְכֵיצַד הִיא הַסְּמִיכָה לְדוֹרוֹת. לֹא שֶׁיִּסְמְכוּ יְדֵיהֶן עַל רֹאשׁ הַזָּקֵן אֶלָּא שֶׁקּוֹרִין לוֹ רַבִּי וְאוֹמְרִים לוֹ הֲרֵי אַתְּ סָמוּךְ וְיֵשׁ לְךָ רְשׁוּת לָדוּן אֲפִלּוּ דִּינֵי קְנָסוֹת: אֵין קָרוּי אֱלֹהִים אֶלָּא בֵּית דִּין שֶׁנִּסְמַךְ בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בִּלְבַד וְהֵם הָאֲנָשִׁים הַחֲכָמִים הָרְאוּיִין לָדוּן שֶׁבָּדְקוּ אוֹתָן בֵּית דִּין שֶׁל אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל וּמִנּוּ אוֹתָם וְסָמְכוּ אוֹתָן:

How is the practice of semichah practiced for all time? The person conveying ordination does not rest his hands on the elder's head. Instead, he is addressed by the title of Rabbi and is told: "You are ordained and you have the authority to render judgment, even in cases involving financial penalties. The term Elohim can be applied only to a court which received semichah in Eretz Yisrael alone . They are wise men who are fit to render judgment who were scrutinized by a court within Eretz Yisrael which appointed them and conveyed semichah upon them.

וְאֵין כָּבוֹד אֶלָּא תּוֹרָה שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (משלי ג לה) "כָּבוֹד חֲכָמִים יִנְחָלוּ". וְכֵן הָרַב שֶׁאֵינוֹ הוֹלֵךְ בְּדֶרֶךְ טוֹבָה אַף עַל פִּי שֶׁחָכָם גָּדוֹל הוּא וְכָל הָעָם צְרִיכִין לוֹ אֵין מִתְלַמְּדִין מִמֶּנּוּ עַד שׁוּבוֹ לַמּוּטָב. שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (מלאכי ב ז) "כִּי שִׂפְתֵי כֹהֵן יִשְׁמְרוּ דַעַת וְתוֹרָה יְבַקְשׁוּ מִפִּיהוּ כִּי מַלְאַךְ ה' צְבָאוֹת הוּא". אָמְרוּ חֲכָמִים אִם הָרַב דּוֹמֶה לְמַלְאַךְ ה' צְבָאוֹת תּוֹרָה יְבַקְּשׁוּ מִפִּיהוּ אִם לָאו אַל יְבַקְּשׁוּ תּוֹרָה מִפִּיהוּ:

Our Sages said: Whoever teaches an improper student is considered as if he throws a stone to Mercury, as [Proverbs 26:8] states: "As one who winds a stone in a sling, so is he who gives honor to a fool." There is no "honor" other than Torah, as [Proverbs 3:35] states: "The wise shall inherit honor." Similarly, one should not study from a teacher who does not follow a proper path even though he is a very wise man and his [instruction] is required by the entire nation, until he returns to a good path, as [implied by Malachi 2:7]: "For the priest's lips shall keep knowledge, and they shall seek Torah from his mouth, because he is a messenger from the Lord of Hosts." Our Sages said: If a teacher resembles "a messenger of the Lord of Hosts," seek Torah from his mouth. If he does not, do not seek Torah from his mouth.

אָמְרוּ לוֹ, הֲרֵי תוֹרָה שֶׁבִּכְתָב, כָּל הָרוֹצֶה יָבֹא וְיִלְמַד, וְאַל תַּרְגִּישׁ בַּתּוֹרָה שֶׁבְּעַל פֶּה. וְהֶאֱמִין לָהֶם וְשָׁמַע דִּבְרֵיהֶם וְהִגְלָה הַחֲכָמִים, וּבִכְלָלָם שִׁמְעוֹן בֶּן שָׁטַח, וְהָיָה חֲתָנוֹ, וְנִתְקַלְקָלה הָרַבָּנוּת זְמָן מֻעָט, וְטָרְחוּ לְהַחֲזִיק בַּתּוֹרָה בְשִׁקּוּל דַּעְתָּם וְהַקָּשׁוֹתָם, וְנִלְאוּ וְלֹא יָכֹלוּ, עַד שֶׁהוּשַׁב שִׁמְעוֹן בֶּן שָׁטַח וְתַלְמִידָיו מֵאֲלֶכְּסַנְדְּרִיָּא וְשָׁבָה הַקַּבָּלָה לְאֵיתָנָהּ.

Shētaḥ, with the friends of both. At this period arose the doctrine of the Karaites in consequence of an incident between the Sages and King Jannai who was a priest.

חוֹבוֹת הָאֵבָרִים יֵחָלְקוּ לִב׳ חֲלָקִים: הָאֶחָד מֵהֶם מִצְוֹת שֶׁמְּחַיֵּב בָּהֶם הַשֵּׂכֶל אֲפִלּוּ אִם לֹא חִיְּבָה בָּהֶן הַתּוֹרָה. וְהַחֵלֶק הַשֵּׁנִי מִצְוֹת הַשֵּׁמַע שֶׁאֵין הַשֵּׂכֶל מְחַיֵּב בָּהֶם וְלֹא דּוֹחֶה אוֹתָם כְּאִסּוּר בָּשָׂר בְּחָלָב וְשַׁעַטְנֵז וְכִלְאַיִם וְהַדּוֹמֶה לָהֶם מִמָּה שֶׁנֶּעֶלְמָה מִמֶּנּוּ עִלַּת אִסּוּרָם וְעִלַּת חִיּוּב מִמָּה שֶׁנִּתְחַיַּבְנוּ מֵהֶן.

The first aims at the knowledge of the duties of the limbs (practical duties) and is the science of external conducts. The second deals with the duties of the heart, namely, its sentiments and thoughts, and is the science of the inner life.

וכאשר מרפה עצמו מדברי תורה, אם כן הוא פירש* עצמו מן עיקר המציאות, ולכך אין ראוי לו רק הגיהנם, שהוא הפך זה, שהגיהנם ציה וצלמות, ואינו בכלל מציאות, רק אבדון הוא. כי האדם הוא בכח, והוא נברא שיצא אל הפעל על ידי תורה ומצות. ואמר "איני יודע אם לעמל מלאכה, אם לעמל שיחה", כלומר אם השלמת האדם במלאכה, שהוא השלמת נפש החיוני בלבד, כמו שהוא אצל הבהמה שיש לה נפש חיוני, והיא נבראת לעשות מלאכה.

And [the Talmud] further [recounts] ibid [Sotah 22a]: '[If] he has read [i.e., studied Scripture] and studied the Oral Law, yet did not apprentice himself to Torah scholars - Rabbi Eliezer says: this one is a commoner; Rabbi Samuel son of Nachmeni says: this one is an ignoramus; Rabbi Yanai says: this one is a Samaritan; Rav Acha son of Jacob says: this one is a magus. Rav Nachman son of Isaac said: The opinion of Rav Acha son of Jacob seems most plausible, as people say: A magus chants without knowing what he's chanting; a tanna teaches without knowing what he's teaching.' And the explanation of this [Talmudic passage] is that when he studied the Law [lit: Mishna] but did not apprentice himself to a Torah scholar to clarify the reasons for the Law - for it is a clear mind [that one has] when one has arrived at [lit: stood upon] the reasons for the Law - [such a one who has failed to do this clarification by appreticing to a scholar] is called a commoner [am haaretz] inasmuch as he did not acquire an intellect.

מינוי השופטים בארץ ובחוצה לארץ. ובו ו סעיפים: בזמן הזה דנים הדיינים דיני הודאות והלוואות וכתובות אשה וירושות ומתנות ומזיק ממון חבירו שהם הדברים המצויים תמיד ויש בהם חסרון כיס אבל דברים שאינם מצויים אע"פ שיש בהם חסרון כיס כגון בהמה שחבלה בחבירתה או דברים שאין בהם חסרון כיס אע"פ שהם מצויים כגון תשלומי כפל וכן כל הקנסות שקנסו חכמים כתוקע לחבירו (פי' שתוקע בקול באזנו ומבעיתו) וכסוטר את חבירו (פי' מכה בידו על הלחי) וכן כל המשלם יותר ממה שהזיק או שמשלם חצי נזק אין דנין אותו אלא מומחים הסמוכים בא"י חוץ מחצי נזק צרורות מפני שהוא ממון ואינו קנס: אדם שחבל בחבירו אין מגבין דיינים שאינם סמוכים בא"י נזק צער ופגם ובושת וכופר אבל שבת וריפוי מגבין: הגה וי"א שאף ריפוי ושבת אין דנין (טור בשם הרא"ש) ולא ראיתי נוהגין לדקדק בזה רק כופין החובל לפייס הנחבל ולקנסו כפי הנראה להם (ד"מ לדעת מהר"ם בפסקיו סי' ר"ח) וכמו שיתבאר בסמוך סעיף ה':

Nowadays the Judges may adjudicate cases of admissions and transaction of loans, marriage contracts, inheritances, gifts and damage done to another person's chattel, which are matters that are of frequent occurrence and involve a monetary loss; but matters that are not of frequent occurrence although they involve a monetary loss, e.g., cattle that injured other [cattle], or matters that do not involve a monetary loss although they are of frequent occurrence, e.g., the repayment of the double amount, and likewise, all fines that were imposed by the Sages, as [in the case of] one who boxes his neighbour's [ear] — The meaning [of Toke'a should be understood as] 'He shouts in a [loud] voice into his [neighbour's] ear and frightens him — or as [in the case of] one who slaps his neighbour — e., He strikes [him] with his hand on the cheek — and thus also whosoever pays more than the actual damage done, or one who pays half-damages, — [the law is that] only authoritative Judges duly ordained in the Land of Israel may judge it save [in the case of the liability for] half-damages [done by] pebbles, which is [regarded as] civil and not [as] penal. [In the case of] a man who injured his fellow-man — [the law is that] Judges who are not duly ordained in the Land of Israel cannot order the payment for injury, pain, blemish, indignity, and indemnity, but they may order the payment for loss of time and healing. Gloss: And some say that also [cases of] healing and loss of time they do not adjudicate. However, I have not seen [them] adopt [this] practice, [viz.,] to be strict in this [matter] save that they coerce the injurer to appease the injured [with money] and to penalize him according to that which appears [reasonable] to them as will be explained anon par. 5.