Ownership, Acquisition, and Liability in Halacha

מַתְנִי׳ נְכָסִים שֶׁיֵּשׁ לָהֶם אַחְרָיוּת – נִקְנִין בְּכֶסֶף וּבִשְׁטָר וּבַחֲזָקָה. שֶׁאֵין לָהֶם אַחְרָיוּת – אֵין נִקְנִין אֶלָּא בִּמְשִׁיכָה. נְכָסִים שֶׁאֵין לָהֶם אַחְרָיוּת נִקְנִין עִם נְכָסִים שֶׁיֵּשׁ לָהֶם אַחְרָיוּת בְּכֶסֶף וּבִשְׁטָר וּבַחֲזָקָה, וּבַחֲזָקָה. מְנָלַן? אָמַר חִזְקִיָּה: אָמַר קְרָא: ״וּשְׁבוּ בְּעָרֵיכֶם אֲשֶׁר תְּפַשְׂתֶּם״, בַּמֶּה תְּפַשְׂתֶּם – בִּישִׁיבָה. דְּבֵי רַבִּי יִשְׁמָעֵאל תָּנָא: ״וִירִשְׁתֶּם אֹתָהּ וִישַׁבְתֶּם בָּהּ״, בַּמֶּה יְרַשְׁתֶּם – בִּישִׁיבָה. וְשֶׁאֵין לָהֶם אַחְרָיוּת אֵין נִקְנִין אֶלָּא בִּמְשִׁיכָה. מְנָלַן? דִּכְתִיב: ״וְכִי תִמְכְּרוּ מִמְכָּר לַעֲמִיתֶךָ אוֹ קָנֹה מִיַּד עֲמִיתֶךָ״ – דָּבָר הַנִּקְנֶה מִיָּד לְיָד.

MISHNA: Property that serves as a guarantee, i.e., land or other items that are fixed in the earth, can be acquired by means of giving money, by means of giving a document, or by means of taking possession of it. Property that does not serve as a guarantee, i.e., movable property, can be acquired only by pulling. Property that does not serve as a guarantee can be acquired along with property that serves as a guarantee by means of giving money, by means of giving a document, or by means of taking possession of them. The movable property is transferred to the buyer’s possession when it is purchased together with the land, by means of an act of acquisition performed on the land. § The mishna further teaches that land can be acquired by means of taking possession of it. The Gemara asks: From where do we derive this? Ḥizkiyya said that the verse states: “And dwell in your cities that you have taken” (Jeremiah 40:10). In what manner have you taken these cities? They are taken by dwelling, which indicates that taking possession of a plot of land and dwelling there is an act demonstrating ownership, and it is itself a valid act of acquisition. A Sage from the school of Rabbi Yishmael taught a different proof: “And you shall possess it and dwell there” (Deuteronomy 11:31). How have you possessed it? You have done so by dwelling there. This teaches that land can be acquired through an act that demonstrates ownership. § The mishna teaches that property that does not serve as a guarantee can be acquired only by pulling. The Gemara asks: From where do we derive this? As it is written: “And if you sell any item to your neighbor or buy from your neighbor’s hand” (Leviticus 25:14). This verse speaks of an item that is acquired from hand to hand, i.e., by pulling.

הַצַּד הַשָּׁוֶה שֶׁבָּהֶן – שֶׁדַּרְכָּן לְהַזִּיק, וּשְׁמִירָתָן עָלֶיךָ; וּכְשֶׁהִזִּיק – חָב הַמַּזִּיק לְשַׁלֵּם תַּשְׁלוּמֵי נֶזֶק, בְּמֵיטַב הָאָרֶץ. גְּמָ׳ מִדְּקָתָנֵי ״אָבוֹת״ – מִכְּלָל דְּאִיכָּא תּוֹלְדוֹת; תּוֹלְדוֹתֵיהֶן כַּיּוֹצֵא בָּהֶן, אוֹ לָאו כַּיּוֹצֵא בָּהֶן?

The common denominator of the components in all of these primary categories is that it is their typical manner to cause damage, and the responsibility for their safeguarding to prevent them from causing damage is incumbent upon you, the owner of the animal or generator of the fire or the pit. And when a component of any of these categories causes damage, the owner or generator of the component that caused the damage is obligated to pay restitution for damage with best-quality land. GEMARA: From the fact that the mishna teaches its ruling employing the term: Primary categories, by inference, there are subcategories of those primary categories. The Gemara asks: Are their subcategories similar to them, i.e., to their respective primary categories, so that the same halakhot apply to them, or are they dissimilar to them?

וְלֹא רְאִי הַשֵּׁן – שֶׁאֵין כַּוּוֹנָתוֹ לְהַזִּיק, כִּרְאִי הַקֶּרֶן – שֶׁכַּוּוֹנָתוֹ לְהַזִּיק. וְלָאו קַל וָחוֹמֶר הוּא – וּמָה שֵׁן, שֶׁאֵין כַּוּוֹנָתוֹ לְהַזִּיק – חַיָּיב; קֶרֶן, שֶׁכַּוּוֹנָתוֹ לְהַזִּיק – לֹא כׇּל שֶׁכֵּן? אִיצְטְרִיךְ, סָלְקָא דַּעְתָּךְ אָמֵינָא: מִידֵּי דְּהָוֵה אַעֶבֶד וְאָמָה – עֶבֶד וְאָמָה, לָאו אַף עַל גַּב דְּכַוּוֹנָתָן לְהַזִּיק, אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי פְּטִירִי? הָכִי נָמֵי לָא שְׁנָא. אָמַר רַב אָשֵׁי: אַטּוּ עֶבֶד וְאָמָה לָאו טַעְמָא רַבָּה אִית בְּהוּ? שֶׁמָּא יַקְנִיטֶנּוּ רַבּוֹ, וְיֵלֵךְ וְיַדְלִיק גְּדִישׁוֹ שֶׁל חֲבֵירוֹ, וְנִמְצָא זֶה מְחַיֵּיב אֶת רַבּוֹ מֵאָה מָנֶה בְּכׇל יוֹם!

And the defining characteristic [re’i] of the category of Eating, where it is not the objective of the animal to cause damage, is not similar to the defining characteristic of the category of Goring, where the objective of the animal is to cause damage. The Gemara asks: But isn’t it possible to derive Goring from Eating by means of an a fortiori inference: If in a case of Eating, where it is not the objective of the animal to cause damage, its owner is liable, with regard to Goring, where the objective of the animal is to cause damage, should the owner not all the more so be liable? The Gemara answers: Nevertheless, it was necessary for the Torah to state the case of Goring, as it might enter your mind to say that the owner is exempt, just as he is exempt in the case where his slave or maidservant causes damage. When a slave or maidservant causes damage, is it not so that although their objective is to cause damage, even so their owners are exempt from liability; and so too, when one’s animal causes damage, it is no different. To dispel this notion, the Torah explicitly states that one is liable for damage caused by the primary category of Goring. Rav Ashi said: Is that to say that in a case where one’s slave or maidservant causes damage there is not a substantial reason to exempt the master? In that case there is concern that perhaps his master will provoke him and in retribution he will go and set fire to another’s stack of grain, and it is found that this slave renders his master liable to pay one hundred maneh, ten thousand dinars, each day. Therefore, there is no basis for the notion that an ox that gores would be exempt just as a slave is exempt, as perhaps, fundamentally, one is liable to pay for damage caused by his slave. A master is exempt from payment to prevent a situation where a slave would exploit that situation to take revenge against his master.

הַקַּרְקָעוֹת וְהָעֲבָדִים וְהַבְּהֵמָה וּשְׁאָר כָּל הַמִּטַּלְטְלִין כָּל אֶחָד מֵהֶן נִקְנֶה בַּחֲלִיפִין וְהוּא הַנִּקְרָא קִנְיָן. כֵּיוָן שֶׁהִגְבִּיהַּ הַמּוֹכֵר אֶת הַכְּלִי וְקָנָהוּ קָנָה הַלּוֹקֵחַ אוֹתוֹ הַקַּרְקַע אוֹ אוֹתָן הַמִּטַּלְטְלִין אַף עַל פִּי שֶׁעֲדַיִן לֹא מְשָׁכָן וְלֹא נָתַן הַדָּמִים.

כָּל הַגּוֹרֵם לְהַזִּיק מָמוֹן חֲבֵרוֹ חַיָּב לְשַׁלֵּם נֵזֶק שָׁלֵם מִן הַיָּפֶה שֶׁבִּנְכָסָיו כִּשְׁאָר הַמַּזִּיקִין. אַף עַל פִּי שֶׁאֵינוֹ הוּא הַמַּזִּיק זֶה הַנֵּזֶק עַצְמוֹ בָּאַחֲרוֹנָה הוֹאִיל וְהוּא הַגּוֹרֵם הָרִאשׁוֹן חַיָּב.

הַמִּקָח אֵינוֹ נִקְנֶה בִּדְבָרִים. וַאֲפִלּוּ הֵעִידוּ עֲלֵיהֶם עֵדִים. כֵּיצַד. בַּיִת זֶה אֲנִי מוֹכֵר לְךָ. יַיִן זֶה אֲנִי מוֹכֵר לְךָ. עֶבֶד זֶה אֲנִי מוֹכֵר לְךָ. וּפָסְקוּ הַדָּמִים וְרָצָה הַלּוֹקֵחַ וְאָמַר קָנִיתִי. וְרָצָה הַמּוֹכֵר וְאָמַר מָכַרְתִּי. וְאָמְרוּ לָעֵדִים הֱווּ עָלֵינוּ עֵדִים שֶׁמָּכַר זֶה וְשֶׁלָּקַח זֶה. הֲרֵי זֶה אֵינוֹ כְּלוּם וּכְאִלּוּ לֹא הָיוּ בֵּינֵיהֶם דְּבָרִים מֵעוֹלָם. וְכֵן בְּנוֹתֵן מַתָּנָה וּמְקַבְּלָהּ: אֲבָל אִם נִקְנָה הַמִּקָּח בְּאֶחָד מֵהַדְּבָרִים שֶׁהוּא נִקְנֶה בָּהֶם קָנָה הַלּוֹקֵחַ וְאֵינָן צְרִיכִין לְעֵדִים כְּלָל וְאֵין אֶחָד מֵהֶן יָכוֹל לַחְזֹר בּוֹ: וּבְמָה יִקָּנֶה הַמִּקָּח. הַקַּרְקָעוֹת בְּאֶחָד מִשְּׁלֹשָׁה דְּבָרִים. בְּכֶסֶף. אוֹ בִּשְׁטָר. אוֹ בַּחֲזָקָה:

An article is not acquired merely through a verbal agreement. This applies even when witnesses testify that the principals have reached an agreement. What is implied? A person says: "I am selling you this house," "I am selling you this wine," or "I am selling you this servant," and a price is fixed. The purchaser agrees and says: "I have purchased it," the seller says: "I have sold it," and they tell witnesses: "Serve as witnesses that so and so has sold and so and so has purchased", their words are of no consequence. It is as if they had never spoken to each other at all. The same applies with regard to a person who gives a gift and its recipient. If, however, the purchase is completed through one of the media by which property is transferred, the purchaser acquires the object. There is no need for witnesses; neither the seller or the purchaser may retract. How is an acquisition made? Landed property can be acquired in one of three ways: a) through the transfer of money, b) through the transfer of a deed of sale, or c) through chazakah (manifesting one's ownership).

כָּל נֶפֶשׁ חַיָּה שֶׁהִיא בִּרְשׁוּתוֹ שֶׁל אָדָם שֶׁהִזִּיקָה הַבְּעָלִים חַיָּבִין לְשַׁלֵּם שֶׁהֲרֵי מָמוֹנָם הִזִּיק שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (שמות כא לה) "כִי יִגֹּף שׁוֹר אִישׁ אֶת שׁוֹר רֵעֵהוּ". אֶחָד הַשּׁוֹר וְאֶחָד שְׁאָר בְּהֵמָה חַיָּה וְעוֹף. לֹא דִּבֵּר הַכָּתוּב בְּשׁוֹר אֶלָּא בַּהוֹוֶה: וְכַמָּה מְשַׁלֵּם. אִם הִזִּיקָה בִּדְבָרִים שֶׁדַּרְכָּהּ לַעֲשׂוֹתָם תָּמִיד כְּמִנְהַג בְּרִיָּתָהּ. כְּגוֹן בְּהֵמָה שֶׁאָכְלָה תֶּבֶן אוֹ עָמִיר אוֹ שֶׁהִזִּיקָה בְּרַגְלָהּ בְּדֶרֶךְ הִלּוּכָהּ חַיָּב לְשַׁלֵּם נֵזֶק שָׁלֵם מִן הַיָּפֶה שֶׁבִּנְכָסָיו שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (שמות כב ד) "מֵיטַב שָׂדֵהוּ וּמֵיטַב כַּרְמוֹ יְשַׁלֵּם". וְאִם שִׁנְּתָה וְעָשְׂתָה מַעֲשִׂים שֶׁאֵין דַּרְכָּהּ לַעֲשׂוֹתָם תָּמִיד וְהִזִּיקָה בָּהֶן. כְּגוֹן שׁוֹר שֶׁנָּגַח אוֹ נָשַׁךְ. חַיָּב לְשַׁלֵּם חֲצִי נֵזֶק מִגּוּף הַמַּזִּיק עַצְמוֹ שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (שמות כא לה) "וּמָכְרוּ אֶת הַשּׁוֹר הַחַי וְחָצוּ אֶת כַּסְפּוֹ" וְגוֹ':

Whenever a living animal owned by a person causes damages, the owner is required to pay, for the damage was caused by his property. [This is implied by Exodus 21:35:] "When a person's ox will gore an ox belonging to a colleague...." These laws apply equally to an ox and to any other animal, beast or fowl. The verse mentions an ox only because that is a common instance. How much must [the owner] pay? If [the animal] caused damage through the performance of an act that it performs frequently and that is its natural habit - e.g., an animal ate straw or fodder, or it caused damage by [treading on an object] with its feet while walking - [the owner] is obligated to pay the full amount of the damage, [giving up, if necessary,] his most choice property, as stated in [Exodus 22:4]: "Payment should be exacted from his choice field and his choice vineyard." If [the animal] deviated from its ordinary habit and performed acts that it does not usually perform and caused damage in this manner - e.g., a ox gored or bit [another animal] - the owner is obligated to pay half the damages caused. [The payment must be exacted] from the animal that caused the damage, as [Exodus 21:35] states: "And they shall sell the ox that is alive and divide the money."

מִצְוַת בֵּית דִּין לָדוּן בְּדִין שׁוֹמֵר חִנָּם – לָדוּן בְּדִין שׁוֹמֵר חִנָּם, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (שמות כב ו) כִּי יִתֵּן אִישׁ אֶל רֵעֵהוּ כֶּסֶף אוֹ כֵלִים לִשְׁמֹר וְגוֹ', וּבָא הַפֵּרוּשׁ (ב"מ צד, ב) שֶׁפָּרָשָׁה זוֹ נֶאֶמְרָה בְּשׁוֹמֵר חִנָּם, וּלְפִיכָךְ פָּטַר בּוֹ אֶת הַגְּנֵבָה. וּפֵרוּשׁ חִנָּם הוּא שֶׁלֹּא קִבֵּל הַנִּפְקָד שׁוּם שָׂכָר עַל שְׁמִירַת הַפִּקָּדוֹן.

The commandment on the court to judge the case of an unpaid guardian: To judge the case of an unpaid guardian, as it is stated (Exodus 22:6), “If a man gives his neighbor silver or vessels to keep, etc.” And the explanation that comes for it (Bava Metzia 94b) is that this section is stated about an unpaid guardian. And therefore it exempted him from [liability for] theft. And the understanding of “unpaid” is that the [guardian] did not receive any wage for his guardianship from the [owner].

אסור להזיק ממון חבירו ואם הזיקו אע"פ שאינו נהנה חייב לשלם נזק שלם בין שהי' שוגג בין שהיה אנוס (ודווקא שאינו אנוס גמור כמו שיתבאר) כיצד נפל מהגג ושבר את הכלי או שנתקל כשהוא מהלך ונפל על הכלי ושברו חייב נזק שלם: כל אלו הדברי' ברשו' הניזק אבל ברשות המזיק פטור עד שיתכוין להזיק כמו שיתבאר :

כל מה שנתבאר דחייב בין בשוגג בין במזיד ובין באונס זהו דוקא כשהזיק ברשותו של ניזק שנכנס אצלו שלא ברשיונו והזיקו אבל ברשותו של מזיק או ברשות שניהם או ברשות שאינו של שניהם יש בזה דינים אחרים וכך אמרו חז"ל [ב"ק מח:] שניהם ברשות או שניהם שלא ברשות הזיקו זא"ז חייבין הוזקו זה בזה פטורין אבל אחד ברשות ואחד שלא ברשות זה שברשות פטור וזה שלא ברשות חייב ולדעת הרמב"ם אינו חייב המזיק ברשותו אלא כשהיה מתכוין להזיקו אבל בשגגה וכ"ש באונס פטור ו